Тема: Значение устойчивого туризма в развитии туризма.

Исследование проведено в области Анталия-Турция

Мустафа Боз - к.э.н. КТУ Манас

Гульзат Айтбаева – студентка 1 курса магистратуры КТУ Манас

Введение.

Согласно докладу Всемирной Торговой Организации, к 2015 году индустрия туризма превратится в самую доходную отрасль, обогнав нефтяную индустрию и торговлю оружием, станет крупнейшей индустрией в мире. (VSO, 2001, s.1)

По прогнозам ВТО, к 2020 году международные путешествия превысят 1,56 миллиардов человек в год, из которых 1,18 миллиарда составят межрегиональные путешествия, а 0,38 миллиарда – межматериковые путешествия на длинные расстояния.

ВТО провела исследование в области тенденций инвестирования в туризме. Согласно результатам исследования, в новом столетии самыми приоритетными направлениями для инвестирования в туризме станут оригинальные, отличные от других районы и горы, субмарины, полюса и эко-туризм. (Gappi, 12.6.2000, s.2)

Туризм и экология

Туризм влияет на окружающую среду самым непосредственным образом. Влияние туризма на внешнюю среду может быть как положительной, так и отрицательной. (Таблица 1)

К примеру, посетители и туристы приносят вред национальным паркам и естественным средам, загрязняя воды, оставляя бытовые отходы, повреждая деревья и растения, занимаясь ловлей редких видов животных, выкапыванием редких растений и последующей их перепродажей. (Hens. 2001. s.10)

Таблица 1. Влияние туризма на окружающую среду.

Источник: ECONAST 1993. экстаркт из European Union Brussels (Baud-Bovy and Lawson, 2000, с.8)

Для того, чтобы минимизировать, даже устранить отрицательное влияние туризма на окружающюю среду, а также в экономической, социально-культурной областях нужно уделять первостепенное значение развитию устойчивого туризма.

Устойчивое развитие и туризм.

Мы можем дать краткое определение устойчивому развитию, как обеспечение экономического развития без потребления ресурсов. Этот термин используется в экономическом, социальном и экологическом пониманиях. (İsikci, 2002, c. 272)

Всемирная туристическая организация дает следующее определение туризму: « Туризм –это обеспечение постоянности культурной общности, первичного экологического процесса, биологического разнообразия и системы взаимоподдержки при обеспечении потребностей существующих туристов и областей принимающих туристов.

(ВТО, 1995). Пер. (Birkan, 2002, c. 143)

Для развития планового и устойчивого туризма в национальном и региональном масштабах, нужно создать ясную политику и принципы, соответчтвующие выбранной стратегии. Выгоды, принесенные индустрией туризма, такие как социальные, экономические, культурные и экологические, должны быть распределены в равных долях между всем обществом , нужно получить одобрение местного общества . (Aslantaş, 2002, c.7)

На экологическом собрании Добрис, были определены основные принципы, касающиеся устойчивого развития. Эти принципы перечислены ниже. (The Dobris Assessment, 1995’t atfen Oztunali-Kayir 1998: s.301) исп. (Cagatay и др, 2002, с.205)

-устойчивое использование ресурсов

-распространение понимания о сокращении чрезмерного потребления

-включить туризм в планирование

-поддержка местной экономики

-участие местных сообществ

-согласование с государством

-подготовка персонала

-маркетинг ответственного туризма

-проведение исследований

-прогнозирование знаний

Мы не можем отрицать тот факт, что туризм имеет и положительное влияние на окружающую среду. Приведем пример, туризм способствует охране местностей, имеющих историческую ценность, реставрации и улучшению состояния памятников, сооружений. Благодаря туризму понятие бережного отношения к окружающей среде распространяется в обществе. Создаются политики, прилагаются различные усилия для того, чтобы защитить национальные парки, СИТ зон, природных зон, идругих ценностей. (исполь.источник Oztas, 2002,c.42)

Устойчивый туризм в Турции.

Для того, чтобы успешно организовать устойчивое развитие, нужно оценить социальные и окружающие ценности на уровне всего государства, создать инвентаризацию, определить политики, инструменты для измерения, провести учет ресурсов, а также учет всех расходов. (İsikci, 2002,c.272)

Туризм, это сектор который существует в зависимости в первую очередь от наличия природных, культурных и исторических ресурсов. В среде, где природные, культурные и исторические ресурсы разрушаются нельзя говорить о рациональном туризме. Поэтому понятие «устойчивость» имеет гораздо большее значение для туризма, нежели для остальных секторов. Туризм должен быть лидером среди секторов, уделяющих большое значение охране окружающей среды. Другие сектора, (скажем, производство, горнодобывающая отрасль) в значительной степени разрушают природу, отрицательно влияя на туризм. Хотя сектору туризма следует быть лидером среди «устойчивых» секторов, в действительности в значительной степени разрушает природу, культурные и исторические ценности . Иначе говоря, если даже индустрия туризма, уничтожая природу, культурные и исторические ценности, развивается по экономическим параметрам, она не являяется устойчивым. (Birkan,2002 c.139)

Проблемы туризма.

Сектор туризма приносит экономическую, социальную, экологическую и др. Выгоды. Однако, если не контролировать, то из-за чрезмерного потребления ресурсов, а также из-за неправильного выбора места, будут уничтожаться природные зоны, исторические ценности, пребрежные зоны, тем самым негативно влияя на окружающую среду.

В Турции, в стране где стремительно развивается туризм, естественные среды обитания превращаются в современные районы отдыха, прибрежные пески, в которых морские черепахи, занесенные в Красную книгу, размножаются, превращаются в туристические зоны. В моря выливается большое количество загрязненной воды, тем самым нарушая всю экосистему.

За последние тридцать лет берега претерпели большие изменения под воздействием человеческого фактора, из-за многочисленных построек на прибрежных территорях у местного населения и всей индустрии появилась проблема питьевой воды. (Dindar, 2002, c.264)

Особенности природного и культурного пейзажа и развитие туризма тесно друг с другом связаны. Инвесторы знают о положительном влиянии природы на развитии сектора, однако продолжают увеличивать количество оборудования и мест. Это противостояние продолжает иметь место в Анталии, также как и в других туристических прибрежных зонах страны. Расширение и развитие индустрии приводит к разрушению природы. В результате такого взаимоотношения между природой и туризмом, туристические зоны превращается в искусственно-природную среду. (Sayan, 1999,c.15)

Цель исследования

Мировой Совет по туризму и путешествиям определяет туризм как крупнейшую индустрию в мире и как силу, обеспечивающую экономическое развитие и рабочие места. Несмотря на общий экономический спад в мире, сектор туризма в среднем растет в среднем на 9% в год в течении нескольких лет.

Туризм является основным источником дохода для многих, и в первую очередь для развивающихся стран. Особенно в тех развивающихся странах, где низкий платежный баланс, туризм становится путем быстрого развития и обогащения.

Туризм, образно говоря, является мотором для перемен в мире. Однако, необходимо внимательно изучить влияние быстрого развития туризма на развивающиеся страны, а также меры, принимаемые для устойчивого развития туризма.

Данное исследование опирается на эти точки зрения.

Целью данного исследования является выяснение текущих проблем в туризме, вклада туристических агенств в развитие туризма, а также определение альтернативных путей для развития туризма . Для достижения данных целей были посещены туристические агенства, расположенные в области Анталия.

Кроме этого, проведена попытка определения необходимых действий для развития устойчивого туризма, а также исследования возможных путей развития туризма в будущем.

Вид исследования.

Вид данного исследования – открытие?. Изучая деятельность туристических агенств, в данной работе предпринята попытка определить взгляды туристических агенств относительно таких тем, как насущные проблемы туризма, альтернативные виды туризма, устойчивый туризм и будущее туризма.

Выбор популяции и выборки

Данное исследование проводилось в Антальи, в самом посещаемой туристами области Турции, где много альтернативных видов туризма и разнообразие деятельности в этой сфере.

Популяцию данного исследования составляют туристические агенства, действующие в области Анталья.

В практической части исследования была произведена выборка. В исследовании был предпочтен системный метод вероятной выборки, проводилось пропорциональное определение выборки относительно групп. Исследование проводилось на 154 выборках, что соответствует 32%ам популяции.

Проблемы туризма в Анталии.

Существующие ныне проблемы туризма перечислены в Таблице 2. Как видно из таблицы, самыми важными проблемами являются испорченная природная среда и низкий уровень расходов туристов. Другими важными проблемами являются недостаток презентаций за рубежом, недостаточная и необразованная рабочая сила, недостаток в политике и планировании в туризме, несистематичное размещение городов, отрицательный имидж за границей, концентрация спроса в определенные сезоны года.

Другие проблемы, указанные в Таблице 2. имеют не меньшее значение для развития устойчивого туризма.

Рассматривая мнения туристических агенств о сегодняшнем положении туризма в Анталии, приводим в Таблице 3 различные суждения относительно развития устойчивого развития туризма в данном регионе. Основными мерами для развития туризма в данном регионе должны быть обучение работников сферы туризма, а также предотвращение разрушения природы.

Таблица 3. Суждения о сегодняшнем положении туризма в Анталии

Развитие туризма и важные темы, касающиеся повышения устойчивости.

Важными темами для развития и устойчивости туризма являются следующие темы: охрана и развитие природных и культурных ценностей; усовершенствование качества и количества потенциальных туристов путем расширения альтернативных видов туризма; государственная поддержка альтернативных видов туризма; обучение работников туристического сектора. Темы, являющиеся наиболее важными перечислены в Таблице 4.

Таблица 4. Важные темы для развития и повышения устойчивости туризма.

Если рассмотреть распределение частоты важных тем по развитию и увеличению устойчивости туризма, можно увидеть, что 90-98 % опрошенных абсолютно согласны с вышеуказанными суждениями.

Согласно распределению частот, можем сказать, что каждое суждение имеет огромное значение для развития туризма, однако наиболее важными являются четыре суждения: охрана и развитие природных и культурных ценностей, усовершенствование качества и количества потенциальных туристов путем расширения альтернативных видов туризма, государственная поддержка альтернативных видов туризма и обучение работников туристического сектора, повышение их понимания.

Вывод:

Несмотря на общую экономическую стагнацию в мире, и даже резкий спад в некоторых отраслях экономики, сектор туризма продолжает устойчиво развиваться в течение нескольких лет. Учитывая глобализацию, можно с уверенностью сказать, что развитие туризма продолжится и далее.

Однако паралельно с развитием данного сектора, необходимо уделять внимание на важные темы, связанные с устойчивостью сектора.

Особенно в развивающихся странах, для решения таких проблем как недостаток валют, безработица, или для получения быстрой прибыли зачастую принимаются неожиданные решения без создания определенных политик, долгосрочных планов и программ, которые впоследствии противоречат долгосрочным планам развития страны в будущем.

Основными ресурсами туризма в любой стране являются природная среда, географическое строение, исторические и культурные ценности этой страны. Если природная среда, географическое строение, исторические и культурные ценности будут разрушаться вследствие чрезмерного и неосторожного пользования, не будут охраняться и улучшаться, со временем страна потеряет туристическую привлекательность.

В Турции, начиная особенно с 1980-х годов, в секторе теризма было много действий без создания определенных политик, долгосрочных планов и программ, которые поддерживались государством.

Негативные последствия этой практики, которую мы можем назвать жестким массовым туризмом, отражаются сегодня в нашей стране, по прошествии длительного времени.

Для того, чтобы минимизировать негативные последствия туризма, обеспечить устойчивое развитие нужно быть, как впрочем всегда и во всем, дальнозоркими, создавать долгосрочные политики, реализовать планы и программы в соответствии с выбранной целью, проводить контроль за их исполнением, а также продолжать работать с учетом прошедших изменений.

Известно, что имея природные, исторические и культурные ценности и образованный кадровые ресурсы, Кыргызстан обладает огромным потенциалом в сфере туризма. Верится , что при понимании значимости, а также при правильном применении на практике тех тем, которых мы затронули, сектор туризма, который является приоритетным сектором в Кыргызстане, внесет огромный вклад в развитие экономики, социальной и культурной жизни страны.

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IMPACTS OF TOURISM, PARTICULARLY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: IMPORTANCE OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

Mustafa Boz (Ph. D.)

Kseniya Trublenkova

ABSTRACT

Tourism is one of the largest industries in the world. Tourism business activities can have considerable impact on local development trends. For many countries, especially developing ones, the tourism industry is seen as an important income source. Employment opportunities, environmental consciousness and protection, and an influx of foreign currency to the host nation are just a few examples of the contributions that tourism industry can make to the economy of a country. But it is necessary to carefully study that impact of a rapidly developed tourism industry in developing economies since there may be many unforeseeable economic, cultural and environmental implications due to the development of the tourism industry.

This article tries to determine impacts, particularly negative impacts of unplanned, uncontrolled rapid development of tourism. And the importance of sustainable development of tourism in developing countries.

Key words: Impacts of tourism, sustainable tourism, leakages in tourism, Developing and Least Developed Countries

1. INTRODUCTION

The tourism sector is probably the only service sector that provides concrete and quantified trading opportunities for all nations, regardless of their level of development. (UNTACT, 2004) For many developing countries tourism is one of fundamental pillars of their development process because it is one of the dominant activities in the economy.K Tourism development if properly developed and supported, can indeed be a “quick – win” in overcoming the economic and social conditions the prevail in LDCs (Least Developed Countries) in accelerating their integration into the world economy. (WTO, 2007)

However, it is also a sector where there is clearly an uneven distribution of benefits, which is threatening the social, economic and environmental sustainability of tourism in some developing countries (Benavides, 2001)

2. THE IMPACTS OF TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

2.1. The Importance and Positeve Impacts of Tourism for Developing Countries

There are several reasons that make tourism an especially suitable economic development sector for LDCs and developing countries. Such as;

1. Tourism is consumed at the point of production.

2. Most LDCs have comparative advantage in tourism over developed countries.

3. Tourism is a more diverse industry than many others.

4. Tourism is labor intensive, create new job opportunities.

5. Tourism products not only material benefits for the poor but also cultural pride.

6. Stimulation of infrastructure investment contribution to local economies

7. Foreign exchange earnings,

8. Generation of employment and business opportunities.

9. Contributions to government revenues.

10. Tourism can significantly contribute to environmental protection, conservation and restoration of biological diversity

11. Tourism as a force for peace and understanding among different cultures.

12. Strengthening communities, Revaluation of culture and traditions

13. Tourism encourages civic involvement and pride (WTO, 2007 and UNEP, 2007)

2.2. Negative Impacts of Tourism

But unfortunately, tourism industry always does not have possitive impacts as mentioned above. It also has many negative impacts, particularly for least developed and developing tourist destination countries.

Goverments in many tourist destinations and local communities have little or no information on what to expect from tourism and the incoming tourists and how to influence and control tourism and guide tourist behaviour. They are controlled by international/global institutions, the industry and the consumers. Governments of the affluent countries are only beginning to look at the issues of outgoing tourism. Governments are not yet sufficiently aware of their responsibility and methods to influence tourist behaviour by political and legal guidelines/criteria and appropriate planning and policies. (UN CSD NGO Steering Committee., 2007)

2.2.1. Negative Economic Impacts of Tourism

There are many hidden costs to tourism, which can have unfavorable economic effects on the host community. Often rich countries are better able to profit from tourism than poor ones. Whereas the LDCs and developing countries have the most urgent need for income, employment and general rise of the standard of living by means of tourism, they are least able to realize these benefits. Among the reasons for this are large-scale transfer of tourism revenues out of the host country and exclusion of local businesses and products. (UNEP, 2007)

Leakages in Tourism Industry in Developing Countries

The direct income for an area is the amount of tourist expenditure that remains locally after taxes, profits, and wages are paid outside the area and after imports are purchased; these subtracted amounts are called leakage. In most all-inclusive package tours, about 80% of travelers’ expenditures go to the airlines, hotels and other international companies (who often have their headquarters in the travelers’ home countries), and not to local businesses or workers. In addition, significant amounts of income actually retained at destination level can leave again through leakage. (UNEP, 2007)

The high proportion of economic leakages, outside the local economy. In many developing countries and practically all LDCs, a generally considerable percentage of the foreign exchance income generated by international tourist arrivals leaks out the economy. (WTO, 2007)

This leakage can be in the form of repatriation of benefits of foreign tourism companies, fees to hotel management companies, remuneration of foreign staff and last but not least, imports of goods and services to respond to the tourists” needs. (WTO, 2007)

Multinational corporations and large foreign businesses have a substantial share in the import leakage. Often, especially in poor developing destinations, they are the only ones that possess the necessary capital to invest in the construction of tourism infrastructure and facilities. As a consequence of this, an export leakage arises when overseas investors who finance the resorts and hotels take their profits back to their country of origin. (UNEP, 2007)

The average import-related leakage for most developing countries today is between 40% and 50% of gross tourism earnings for small economies and between 10% and 20% for most advanced and diversified economies, according to UNCTAD.

Of each US$ 100 spent on a vacation tour by a tourist from a developed country, only around US$ 5 actually stays in a developing-country destination’s economy. (UNEP, 2007)

Other negative economic impacts can be as follows;

Infrastructure cost, Increase in prices, Economic dependence of the local community on tourism, Seasonal character of jobs, other industry impacts affecting tourism

2.2.2. Negative Envionmental Impacts of Tourism

Tourism in natural areas, euphemistically called “eco-tourism”, can be a major source of degradation of local ecological, economic and social systems. (ICLEI, 1999)

Uncontrolled conventional tourism poses potential threats to many natural areas around the world. It can put enormous pressure on an area and lead to impacts such as soil erosion, increased pollution, discharges into the sea, natural habitat loss, increased pressure on endangered species and heightened vulnerability to forest fires. It often puts a strain on water resources, and it can force local populations to compete for the use of critical resources. Many of these impacts are linked with the construction of general infrastructure such as roads and airports, and of tourism facilities, including resorts, hotels, restaurants, shops, golf courses, marinas and exceedingly built-up areas because of migration to tourism regions.

The negative impacts of tourism development can gradually destroy the environmental resources on which it depends. (UNEP, 2007)

2.2.3. Negative Socio-Cultural Impacts of Tourism

Host communities are often the weaker party in interactions with their guests. The influences are not always apparent and are difficult to measure depending on value judgments and are often indirect or hard to identify.

Tourism brings about changes in value systems and behaviour and can thereby threatens indigenous identity. Furthermore, changes often occur in community structure, family relationships, collective traditional life styles, ceremonies and morality. (Travel2care, 2007)

One of the biggest negative impact of tourism has been the commercialization of culture that has led the traditional rituals and festivals to lose their symbolic value and turned these into mere tourist attractions. (IUCMP, 2007)

In general negative socio-cultural impacts of tourism can be mentioned as follow;

Commodification, standardization, loss of authenticity and staged authenticity, adaptation to tourist demands, culture clashes,

Cultural clashes may further arise through: Economic inequality, Irritation due to tourist behavior, Job level friction, Partly due to the above impacts, tourism can create more serious situations where ethical and even criminal issues are involved. Such as; crime generation, child labour, prostitution and sex tourism. (UNEP, 2007)

3. SOLUTION: SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

The true proof of “sustainable tourism” will be the sustainable development of local communities that serve as tourist destinations. It is time for the sustainable tourism debate to focus on this challenge. Local authorities worldwide welcome the leadership of the U. N. Commission on Sustainable Development, and the interest of the tourism industry, to reduce tourism’s negative impacts and to increase the positive contribution of tourism business and consumption activity to local sustainable development. (ICLEI, 1999)

Destinations and businesses must make a series of hard decisions about where best to allocate their limited resources to achieve the best of optimal results. No two destinations are the same and, therefore the choices made and the paths taken to sustainability will wary from destination to destination. Determining the best path to take involves understanding the unique situation facing each destination, its competitive situation, opportunities, strengths and weaknesses. These in turn will influence the establishments of goals, whose achievement will be affected by the ability of that destination to find or develop the necessary skills required. (McRercher, 2003)

Solutions to adverse tourism impacts are to be found in the shared interest of local communities, tourism business, and tourism consumers to maintain the natural wealth and social heritage of the tourist destination. In the first instance, therefore, an institutional mechanism must be established, relative to each destination, to articulate and develop this sense of shared interest. To secure the legitimacy of these mechanisms, the participation of all interested local groups or interests must be guaranteed. Dialogue must take place in an open and transparent way. (ICLEI, 1999) Sustainable tourism is built around of four pillars of tourism, economic, ecological, cultural and community sustainabilities. All four of these elements must be addressed if we are to achieve sustainable tourism. (McRercher, 2003)

Success in tourism planning comes when it assumes a holistic approach, encompassing a wide range of economic, social, political and environmental aspects.(UN Atlas of the Oceans, 2007)

CONCLUSION

Tourism is a fast growing industry and a valuable sector, contributing significantly to the economies of developing countries. Tourism affects the economy and lives of communities. The are real and perceived fears that are sometimes attributed to tourism and largely related to poorly managed and mass tourism ventures. As with any economic activity, tourism can have negative impacts on communities.

In order to eliminate leakages and negative impacts of tourism, it is essential to develop long

term plans and policies relating to the development of types of alternate tourism in a

sustainable way., adhere to these plans and policies but remain flexible to change in response to tourism demands.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

- Benavides, David Diaz (2001). The Viability and Sustainability of International Tourism ın Developing Countries, Symposium on Tourism Services 22-23 February 2001, World Trade Organization, Geneva

- ICLEI (International Council on Local Environmental Initiatives) (1999). Tourism and Sustainable Development Sustainable Tourism: A Local Authority Perspective, U. N. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Commission on Sustainable Department, Seventh Session, 19 – 30 April 1999, New York

- IUCMP (2007). Tourism: Socio Cultural Impacts, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, http://edu.iucnp.org/themeMountains/scimpacts.htm (accessed May 26, 2007)

- McKercher, Bob (2003) Sustainable Tourism Development – Guiding Principles for Planning and Management, National Seminar on Sustainable Tourism Development, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, 5-9 November 2003.

- Travel2care (2007). Socio-Cultural Impact of Tourism http://www.travel2care.com/printed.asp?active_page_id=81(accessed May 26, 2007)

- UN Atlas of the Oceans (2007).  Types of Recreation and Tourism, United Nations http://www.oceansatlas.org/index.jsp (accessed May 16, 2007)

- UN CSD NGO Steering Committee (2007). Tourism Segment  — Dialogue Starter Papers Influencing Consumer Behaviour to Promote Sustainable Tourism Development

Prepared by the UN CSD NGO Steering Committee. Co-ordinated by Christina Kamp, Tourism Watch, on behalf of the Ecumenical Coalition on Third World Tourism.

- UNCTAD (2004) Tourism Trade and Development, http://www.unctadxi.org.templates/Print

- UNEP (2007) ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF TOURISM, Production and Consumer Branch: Tourism. http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/sust-tourism/economic.htm (accessed May 2007)

- WTO (2007). Tourism and Least Developed Countries, “A Sustainable Opportunity to Reduce Poverty.” http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1170-1 (accessed May 2007)

IMPORTANCE OF ECONOMIC VALUE ADDED AND LEAKAGES IN TOURISM INDUSTRY, PARTICULARLY FOR DEVELOPING AND LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES; A MEASUREMENT METHOD. TOURISM SATELLITE ACCOUNT.

Mustafa Boz (Ph. D.)

- ABSTRACT -

Tourism has been recognized as one of the major sources of foreign revenue, employment opportunities, and economic growth for many developing and least developed countries.

The tourism industry generates substantial economic benefits to both host countries and tourists’ home countries. Although, as with other impacts, this massive economic development brings along both positive and negative consequences. There are many hidden costs to tourism, which can have unfavourable economic effects on the host community. Often rich countries are better able to profit from tourism than poor ones.

Countries need to measure tourism industry’s contribution to the economy. Measurement of leakages is another problem for many countries. Usually, there are no such data. A new way to overcome these problems is tourism satellite accounting.

The main purpose of these countries should be to reduce tourism’s negative impacts and to increase the positive contribution of tourism business and consumption activity to local sustainable development.

Key words; Value Added, Economic Leakages in Tourism Industry, Tourism Satellite Account, Sustainable Development

JEL Classification: O47

- ÖZET -

Gelişmekte olan ve az gelişmiş birçok ülke için turizm, döviz geliri, istihdam fırsatları ve ekonomik kalkınmanın en önemli kaynaklarından biri olarak bilinir.

Turizm endüstrisi turist kabul eden ve gönderen ülkeler için önemli ekonomik faydalar yaratır. Bununla beraber, diğer etkilerinin yanında bu ekonomik gelişme olumlu ve olumsuz sonuçlara yol açar. Turizmin, evsahibi ülkeye olumsuz ekonomik etkileri olan birçok gizli maliyeti vardır. Genellikle, zengin ülkeler, fakir ülkelere göre turizmden daha fazla kâr ederler.

Ülkeler, turizm endüstrisinin ekonomiye katkılarını ölçme ihtiyacındadırlar. Ekonomik sızıntıların ölçülmesi birçok ülke için diğer bir sorundur. Bu sorunların üstesinden gelebilecek yeni yöntem, Turizm Uydu Hesaplarıdır.

Bu ülkelerin temel amacı turizmin olumsuz etkilerini azaltmak, turizm sektörünün ve tüketim faaliyetlerinin sürdürülebilir yerel kalkınmaya olumlu katkılarını arttırmak olmalıdır.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Katma Değer, Turizm Endüstrisinde Ekonomik Sızıntılar, Turizm Uydu Hesapları, Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma

1. The Importance of Tourism

Tourism is one of the fastest-growing industries, at the beginning of the 21st century and has been used as a reliable indicator of economic growth in both developed and developing countries. Many nations see tourism as a quick and easy solution to combating economic difficulties. Increasingly, countries are choosing to develop and promote their natural resources to attract more tourists in what is a very competitive market. ( Plourde, 2003)

The tourism industry creates more than 10% of global economic output and one in nine jobs with estimated annual revenues of US$ 1,550 billion (World Tourism Organisation) by the year 2010. (Hemmati and Koehler, 2000)

Traditionally the main focus of governments has been on the growth in international arrivals and total foreign exchange earnings, and is now than on fostering entrepreneurial opportunities for the historically disadvantaged, poverty relief, employment and local economic development. Both domestic and international tourism can create employment; it is a relatively labour intensive industry and it employs a multiplicity of skills from accountants and hairdressers to tour guides and trackers. Tourism can provide very good skills development opportunities for local communities. (DEAT, 2002)

Trade in tourism services and tourism activities in general have the potential to become an engine for growth and economic development. Tourism can also be a driving force in efforts to combat poverty, which is one of the central objectives of the UN Millennium Development Goals. (UNCTAD, 2004)

2. Sectors in Tourism Industry

Many different industries and businesses are in the service of tourism industry. The tourism industry is largely dominated by private companies and organisations and a few public organizations. Within each sector certain companies hold significant interests.

The tourism industry can be usefully divided into the following sectors: (Zulu KINGDOM, 2007)

TRANSPORT SECTOR
Airlines
Cruise Lines
Railways
Bus/Coach Operators
Car Rental Operators
Taxis

HOSPITALITY SECTOR
Hotels
Farm stays
B&b’s/Guest Houses
Apartments/Villas/Flats
Condominiums/Time share
Vacation Villages/Sports Villages
Conference/Exhibition Centres
Static & Touring
Caravan/Camping Sites
Game Lodges

REGULATORY SECTOR
Central Government
State or Provincial Government
Local Authorities

TOURISM /NATURAL RESOURCES
Theme Parks
Museums
National Parks
Wildlife Parks
Gardens
Heritage Sites

DESTINATION PROMOTION & MARKETING SECTOR

Publicity Associations
National Tourist Offices
Regional State Tourist Offices
Local Tourist Offices
Tourist Associations

TRAVEL ORGANISERS SECTOR
Tour Operators
Tour Wholesalers/Brokers
Retail Travel Agents
Conference Organisers
Booking Agencies
Incentive Travel Organisers
HOST COMMUNITIES

3. Tourism Value Added

Tourism expenditure represents the value of goods and services sold to tourists, including imported goods directly purchased by tourists.

On the other hand, value added is the ‘value’ that a producer adds to the raw material goods and services it purchases in the process of production. It is the value of total output of goods and services produced, less the value of intermediate inputs of purchased raw materials and services. (Statistics New Zeland, 2007a)

Two alternative views of value added as it relates to tourism can be identified:
- Most simply, the value added of the tourism industries can be estimated as the sum of the value added of each tourism characteristic industry

- Alternatively, a direct link between the demand for tourism goods and services and their supply can be determined, and value added for a certain level of visitor consumption can be estimated. (OECD, 2001)

Value added in tourism sector can be direct or inderect.

Direct value added , represents the value of goods and services produced domestically and bought by tourists, less the value of intermediate inputs required to produce those goods and services.

Indirect tourism value added involves tracing the flow on effects of the intermediate purchases of those businesses directly producing tourism products, and measuring the cumulative value added these purchases generate (Statistics New Zeland, 2007b)

4. Economic Impacts of Tourism

The tourism industry generates substantial economic benefits to both host countries and tourists’ home countries.

Tourism has been strongly advocated as form of economic development by major institutions such as the World Bank, the World Tourism Organization, and UNESCO, as well as individual economic advisors. It is primarily seen as a form of foreign exchange, to help countries pay for their imports and repay their foreign debt. Additionally, it is often seen as providing local jobs, especially jobs that do not require many skills. (Kray, 2007)

The “Tourism Enriches” campaign was launced at the First Conference on Tourism Communications (TOURC) at the end of January 2004 in Madrid. “Tourism enriches individuals, families, communities and all the world.” This is a central, simple but straight-forward message of the new awareness campaign with which the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) wants to raise awareness of the positive impacts tourism can have on life, culture and economy, in short on society at all levels. (UNWTO; 2004)

Tourism is a recognized global industry – one of the largest industries in the world. Like any global industry, tourism business activities can have considerable impact on local development trends. The local impacts of the tourism industry are diverse and are often unique to the tourism sector. (ICLEI, 1999)

While tourism is a key export for most developing countries, it is particularly important for Least Developed Countries (LDCs) and Small Island Developing States (SIDS). For more than half of SIDS, tourism receipts represent between one to three quarters of their total export revenues. For 49 LDCs taken as a group, tourism is the first source of foreign exchange earnings and seven of them critically depend on it for revenues. (UNCTAD, 2004)

The benefits of tourism to host cultures are often listed as primarily economic, including generation of foreign exchange, creation of employment, additional revenue for the host government through taxation of tourists, and improvement of local economic structures. Other potential, but indirect, benefits include improved roads, availability of electricity, access to hospitals, improved water and sewage systems, and better health services. (Plourde, 2003)

Especially in developing countries, one of the primary motivations for a region to promote itself as a tourism destination is the expected economic improvement.

As with other impacts, this massive economic development brings along both positive and negative consequences. (UNEPTIE, 2007) There are many economic costs of tourism as well. One concern is repatriation of profits or “leakage.” (Kray, 2007)

4.1. Negative Economic Impacts of Tourism

Tourism is a major global industry, but is it good for developing countries? Since long-haul tourism to developing countries started in the late 1960s, many commentators have persistently claimed that tourism scarcely benefits the hosts. One suggested problem is the high level of leakages out of the destination country. (Mitchell and Page, 2007)

There are many hidden costs to tourism, which can have unfavourable economic effects on the host community. Often rich countries are better able to profit from tourism than poor ones. Whereas the least developed countries have the most urgent need for income, employment and general rise of the standard of living by means of tourism, they are least able to realize these benefits. Among the reasons for this are large-scale transfer of tourism revenues out of the host country and exclusion of local businesses and products. (UNEPTIE, 2007) Despite the worldwide growth of tourism and the theoretical ability of the industry to provide economic benefits for indigenous communities, tourism often results in high levels of leakages when few ties are developed between the destination community’s industries and the tourism industry. (O’Driscoll, 2005)

4.2. Economic Leakages in Tourism

Leakages are payments made outside the destination economy: In other words, the proportion of the total holiday price that does not reach or remain in the destination. Some leakage happens internally, where tourists spend money at the destination but this pays for imported goods and services. Other tourism leakages are external payments that never make it to the destination country, such as travel agent commissions, tour operator profits and foreign airlines. (Mitchell and Page, 2007)

World Tourism Organization has similar surveys; In many developing countries and in practically all LDCs, a generally considerable percentage of the foreign exchange income generated by international tourist arrivals leaks out of the economy. This leakage can be in the form of repatriation of benefits of foreign tourism companies, remuneration of foreign staff and, last but not least, imports of goods and services to respond to the tourists’ needs. (UNWTO, 2007)

There are two main ways that leakage occurs:

Import leakage This commonly occurs when tourists demand standards of equipment, food, and other products that the host country cannot supply. Especially in less-developed countries, food and drinks must often be imported, since local products are not up to the hotel’s (i.e. tourist’s) standards or the country simply doesn’t have a supplying industry. Much of the income from tourism expenditures leaves the country again to pay for these imports.

The average import-related leakage for most developing countries today is between 40% and 50% of gross tourism earnings for small economies and between 10% and 20% for most advanced and diversified economies, according to UNCTAD. (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development)

Export leakage Multinational corporations and large foreign businesses have a substantial share in the import leakage. Often, especially in poor developing destinations, they are the only ones that possess the necessary capital to invest in the construction of tourism infrastructure and facilities. As a consequence of this, an export leakage arises when overseas investors who finance the resorts and hotels take their profits back to their country of origin. (UNEPTIE, 2007)

According to one another view, leakages can be divided into three categories:

Internal leakage or the “import-coefficient” of tourism activities;

External leakage or pre-leakage, depending on the commercialisation mode of the tourism package and the choice of airline;

Invisible leakage or foreign exchange costs associated with resource damage or deterioration. (Benavides, 2001)

A 1996 UN report evaluating the contribution of tourism to national income, gross levels of incomes or gross foreign exchange, found that net earnings of tourism, after deductions were made for all necessary foreign exchange expenditures, were much more significant for the industry. This report found significant leakage associated with:

(a) imports of materials and equipment for construction;

(b) imports of consumer goods, particularly food and drinks;

(c) repatriation of profits earned by foreign investors;

(d) overseas promotional expenditures and

(e) amortization of external debt incurred in the development of hotels and resorts.

The impact of the leakage varied greatly across countries, depending on the structure of the economy and the tourism industry. (UNEPTIE, 2007)

4.2.1. Some Examples of Economic Leakages

Despite the wide range of products and services associated with tourism, one of the industry’s most prevalent trends is the vertical integration of the industry’s sub-sectors. This trend reflected in the corporate strategies of some of the industry’s major players in the several different sub-sectors. Tour operators have long attempted to buy into both forward and backward areas of service and production, such as hotels and charter airlines (backward integration) and promotion and marketing of package deal (forward integration). Airlines have also attempted to integrate vertically, using their charter airline services to gain influence among tour operators, retailers, and travel agencies. Even airports are seeking to expand their operations to grab a bigger piece of the tourism pie. Amsterdam’s Schiphol Airport is active in joint – ventures and strategic alliances with airport operators in the Netherlands Antilles, Indonesia, and China. (Slob and Wilde, 2006)

In Turkey, tourism as a major source of foreign currency earning and employment creation is perceived as a national priority that comes before secondary objectives as preserving cultural heritage, environment, fair distribution of economic growth, and other principles of sustainable tourism development. Therefore, the development approach of Turkey was really driven by volume and value terms in both demand and supply side aspects. In this case, the country becomes driven by an industry that is dominated by international tour operators, (Table 1) multinational companies, central domestic business interests and central government (Tosun; Timothy; Ozturk, 2003).

Table 1. Turkish Tourism Agents that were Taken Over by Intenrational Tour Operators

Source: Milliyet, “Soros, 100 milyon dolarlık turizm yatırımı yapacak”, 15.2.2003, s.8

The ITOs (International Tour Operators) became intense competitors to the SMTEs (Small and Medium Tourism Enterprises). They also take advantage from the unfavourable business environment of the SMTEs during the negotiations, pushing them to reduce their prices, which reduces their profit margins and threatens their viability. In other words, the small size of these firms, their inefficient organization, low professionalism level, lack of resources and the marketing expertise, lack of a unified body or a federation that speaks their rights and contributes to the strengthening of their sector. This, hence, maintains and even nourishes the “dependency” continuum of SMTEs on Tos. SMTEs: Indeed, in both Greece and Turkey, it has been found that hoteliers are forced to accept contracts with tour operators. The inevitable result is a profit margin reduction and a deterioration of both quality and profitability of their products (Buhali 1998; Karamustafa, 1999 acc. Sandi 2004).

For example, in Greece, 70% of the five larger British ITOs control 70% of the British tourism flows to almost every Greek mass destination. Another example is the three major German ITOs that dominate 70% of the Market (D.R.V., 2001). This market power results in conflicts, coercion, and dependency for SMTEs (C. Bastakis et al., 2004).

A study by David Telfer in 2000 regarding the purchasing practices of three Indonesian hotels revealed how individual tourism enterprises can form strategic partnerships with the local agriculture industry. Telfer observed that hotels of different sizes and ownership structures (locally owned vs. internationally owned) all have the ability and potential to purchase food supplies locally. (Telfer and Wall, 2000)

Another study of tourism ‘leakage’ in Thailand estimated that 70% of all money spent by tourists ended up leaving Thailand (via foreign-owned tour operators, airlines, hotels, imported drinks and food, etc.). Estimates for other Third World countries range from 80% in the Caribbean to 40% in India. ( Sustainable Living, 2007 ) On the Caribbean, St. Lucia had a foreign exchange leakage rate of 56% from its gross tourism receipts, Aruba had 41%, Antigua and Barbuda 25% and Jamaica 40%. (Caribbean Voice, 2007)

The cruise ship industry provides another example of economic enclave tourism. Non-river cruises carried some 8.7 million international passengers in 1999. On many ships, especially in the Caribbean (the world’s most popular cruise destination with 44.5% of cruise passengers), guests are encouraged to spend most of their time and money on board, and opportunities to spend in some ports are closely managed and restricted. (UNEPTIE, 2007)

Many experts claim that foreign-owned mainstream resorts with all inclusive packages have particularly high ‘leakage’ figures. For example, Tourism Concern frequently claims that up to 90 percent of the holiday cost leaves developing countries. If true, these figures undermine the case for tourism as a development tool. (Mitchell and Page, 2007)

Local businesses often see their chances to earn income from tourists severely reduced by the creation of “all-inclusive” vacation packages. When tourists remain for their entire stay at the same cruise ship or resort, which provides everything they need and where they will make all their expenditures, not much opportunity is left for local people to profit from tourism.

The Organization of American States (OAS) carried out a survey of Jamaica’s tourist industry that looked at the role of the all-inclusives compared to other types of accommodation. It found that ‘All-inclusive hotels generate the largest amount of revenue but their impact on the economy is smaller per dollar of revenue than other accommodation sub sectors.’

It also concluded that all-inclusives imported more, and employed fewer people per dollar of revenue than other hotels. This information confirms the concern of those who have argued that all-inclusives have a smaller trickle-down effect on local economies. (Source: Tourism Concern) (UNEPTIE, 2007)

4.2.2. How can leakages be reduced?

Economic linkages stop leakages. Buying supplies from people in the host country allows the benefits to remain. Many developing countries now encourage local farmers to supply fresh fruit and vegetables to hotels. Labour is often the most important linkage between a hotel and the local economy, through the payment of salaries and wages. Even a foreign owner will recruit locally to minimise costs. Hotels enhance economic linkages by working with informal tourism businesses (such as a local taxi company). (Mitchell and Page, 2007)

Whether the tourists are domestic or international, their expenditure in local communities contributes to the economic development of the area. The greater the proportion of total tourism spending that stays in the local area, the stronger and more diverse the local economic base. The multiplier effect is greatest where the local linkages are strongest – the imperative is clear, source the inputs for all tourism enterprises as locally as possible in order to maximise local economic benefit and to assist in diversifying the local economy. Reducing economic leakages from the local area and increasing linkages will bring significant local economic development and assist in local economic diversification. Similarly the development of complementary product will strengthen the local economy and local enterprises, groups of established enterprises working together can make a significant difference. Strong economic linkages at the local level were identified in the White Paper as a critical success factor in the local economy. (DEAT, 2002)

Governments and tourism companies in destination countries can support initiatives to reduce leakages

further by:

• using locally-owned accommodation (this can be up to half of the total holiday cost)
• endorsing destinations that integrate tourists into the local economy, where they can purchase local products
• promoting resorts that employ local
• staff and pay reasonable salaries

using airlines from the host country (for long-haul destinations this may constitute one-third of the total package cost). (Mitchell and Page, 2007)

The tourism industry is characterised by a large degree of monopoly in both tour operations and accommodation. The ownership is concentrated in the developed world, meaning a great deal of the profits leak from the developing world again exacerbating the poverty gap. In addition to helping local accommodation providers grab a bigger share of the market, WHL is making a contribution to reducing leakage by

a) working to grow the independent traveller segment of the market (a segment which does not buy tour packages offshore but instead prefers to buy direct from local suppliers) and

b) having ownership of the accommodation booking service in local hands (allowing booking commissions to be retained in the local community). (WHL, 2007)

4.3. The Measurement of Tourism Industry’s Contribution to GDP: TSA

Linkages between the tourism industry and other sectors of local economies is an under-researched area. Issues like package tourism, imported food or linkages to agriculture are more frequently being addressed than foreign direct investment or education and training of local and indigenous communities. Comparable statistics are rare as there are various units based on which tourisms contribution to the economy can be measured. Different countries have different ways of estimating GDP, export expenditures, and so on. Measuring leakages is another problem; for many countries, there are no such data. Travel receipts are commonly used as a proxy for tourism earnings (Sinclair, 1991) but it is sometimes unclear if only direct earnings from the tourism sector are taken into account or if earnings from indirectly related sectors are being included. However, though based on different sets of data, authors’ estimates of average percentages of leakages are fairly similar.Tourism, unlike ‘conventional’ industries such as agriculture or manufacturing, which are classified in accordance with the goods and services they produce, is defined by the characteristics of the customer demanding tourism products. As such, tourism products can cut across standard industry definitions, and alternative measurement systems are needed. A tourism satellite account (TSA) is used to measure the economic contribution of tourism to gross domestic product (GDP) and to provide analysis of the host countries tourism industry. (Statistics New Zeland, 2007c)

Internal leakages can be measured by establishing “satellite accounts” within national accounting and survey procedures to detail all tourism-related economic activities. It is a normal effect present in both developed and developing countries.. The average leakage for most developing countries today is between 40 to 50 percent of gross tourism earnings for small economies and between 10 to 20 percent for most advanced and diversified developing countries. (Benavides 2001)

External leakage or pre-leakage is much more difficult to measure and relates to the proportion of the total value added of tourism of services actually captured by the servicing country. Observed differences between paid and received prices for developing country tourism services (lodging, food, entertainment, etc.) suggest external leakage or pre-leakage levels of up to 75 percent. (Benavides, 2001)

What is a TSA?
A “tourism” satellite account provides a picture of tourism within the national accounting framework allowing a complete and comprehensive set of economic data on the direct contribution of tourism to be compiled. The concepts and methods used in the calculation of many countries’ TSA are based on international standards for TSA’s which are published in Tourism Satellite Account: Methodological References. This document was released in March 2000 as a joint publication by an Inter-Secretariat Working Group made up of the United Nations (UN), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), World Tourism Organisation (WTO) and Eurostat (Statistical Office of the European Communities).

(Australia Bureau of statistics, 2006)

The measurement of tourism’s direct value added, also known as tourism’s direct contribution to GDP, is another major focus of a TSA. It measures the contribution to GDP made by the sellers of products to tourists, as well as by the suppliers of retail products which firms on-sell to tourists. This enables a comparison to be made between the tourism industry’s contribution to GDP and similar contributions made by industries such as agriculture and construction. (Statistics New Zeland 2007b)

5. Recommendations for Sustainable Tourism Development

There is a growing push for businesses in all sectors to adopt a sustainable approach to their operations and to minimise their carbon footprint. Broadly defined, a sustainable approach is one which minimises negative impact on all stakeholders (the physical environment; the communities / cultures in which the activity is located; employees, customers). It is a win-win mindset vis-a-vis all stakeholders, which by definition implies both transparency and accountability (good corporate governance) in all business undertakings. Obviously in an area such as tourism, there are many players impacting on sustainability - at the community, national and international levels (such as government, airlines, tour operators, accommodation providers etc.), and all these groups must play their part for the industry as a whole to drive toward a sustainable future. Not too surprisingly, there is mounting evidence that companies adopting this mindset are also the best performing companies financially over the long term simply because they are taking a long term view of their business. (WHL, 2007)

In practice, the dominant motive for the development of tourism is economic (improvements in employment, incomes and exports), but the very process of developing tourism will impose costs elsewhere. If governmental and non-governmental organizations are to make sensible and rational decisions with respect to the current and future development of tourism, they must have reliable information on its costs and benefits (Fletcher, 1989). Without such information, there is the risk that significant investment opportunities may be missed, that key infrastructure developments may be starved of funds, or developments may take the wrong form or take place in the wrong location. (Ennew, 2003)

The most important overall strategy to achieve these goals is to engage in transparent, democratic and gender-balanced consultation and decision-making processes at the local level in destination areas. Among organisations and groups to be involved in tourism development - stakeholder groups - are national, provincial and local governments, tourism boards, the tourism industry, local communities and the diversity of their member groups, trade unions, non-government organisations (NGOs), community based organisations (CBOs), women, Indigenous Peoples, faith communities, and others. To allow for meaningful participation, there is a great need to improve information availability and capacity-building for participation. Different member groups of local communities, eg women, may need specific measures of capacity building for participation. (Hemmati and Koeler, 2000)

A reduction in world poverty is an internationally agreed priority and targets have been set to halve poverty by the year 2015. Achieving poverty reduction requires actions on a variety of complementary fronts and scales, but a prerequisite of significant progress is pro-poor growth – which benefits the poor. As an industry that is clearly important in many poor countries, can tourism be one source of such growth? (Roe, 2001)

References

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Barnwell, Garfield (2007), “Difficulties in Paradise: the Feasibility of Sustainable Development”, Caribbean Voice, http://www.caribvoice.org/Travel&Tourism/paradise.html, 29.9.2007

Bastakis. C. (2004). “The Perception of small and medium sized tourism accommodation providers on the impacts of the tour operators’ power in Eastern Mediterranean”. Tourism Management. Vol. 25 as quoted from Sandi 2004

Benavides, David Diaz (2001), “The Sustainability of International Tourism ın Developing Countries”, Seminar on Tourism and Economic Growth, OECD, 6-7 March 2001, Berlin

Caribbean Voice (2007), http://www.caribvoice.org/Travel&Tourism/paradise.html 27.6.2007

Dallen J. Timothy (2003), “Tourism Growth, National Development and Regional Inequality in Turkey”, Journal of Sustainable Tourism. Vol.11, No.2&3 as quoted from Sandi (2007)

DEAT (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism) (2002), “National Responsible Tourism Development Guidelines For South Africa”, Provisional Guidelines, March 2002

Department of Tourism and Hospitality, Management School of Business and Public Management, The George Washington University Spring 2005

Ennew, Christine (2003), “Understanding the Economic Impact of Tourism”, Som Nath Chib Memorial Lecture, 14 February 2003 http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/ttri/pdf/2003_5.pdf

Hemmati, Minu and Nina Koehler (2000), Financial Leakages in Tourism, Sustainable Travel & Tourism. pp 25-29, 2000

http://www2.stats.govt.nz/domino/external/omni/omni.nsf/outputs/tourism+satellite+account#Glossary 30.7.2007

Hundt A. (1996) “Impact of Tourism Development on the Economy and Health of Third World nations”, J Travel Med 1996;3:107-12 as quoted from UNEPTIE

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IIED (International Institute for Environment and Development) (2001), http://www.iied.org/human/eandu/eandu_details.html, 27.7.2007

Kray, Christine (2007), “Globalization Modules: International Tourism Liberal Education and Global Citizenship”, The Arts of Democracy 2002 –2005 Rochester Institute of Technology – College of Liberal Arts

Mitchell, Jonathan and Sheila Page (2007), “Linkages and leakages, Local supply and imports”, Overseas Development Institute, http://www.id21.org/insights/insights62/art04.html 27.1.2007

O’Driscoll, Joshua (2005), “Tourism and Agriculture: Creating Linkages Virtual Collobaration:Learning from Multiple Perspectives” George Washington University

OECD (2007), “Tourism Vale Added”, http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=2848, 24.9.2007

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Sandi, Nadia (2004), “LDCs and ITOs in Tourism: Critique and recommendations with focus on Morocco”, Department of Tourism and Hospitality, Management School of Business and Public Management, The George Washington University, May 7, 2004

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SWOT ANALYSIS FOR THE DETERMINING TOURISTIC POLICY AND PLANS IN CANAKKALE

Dr. MUSTAFA BOZ

Kyrgyzstan – Turkiye Manas University

Faculty of Economics and Management

m.b.istanbul@gmail.com

Dr. EMRAH ÖZKUL

Duzce University

Akcakoca School of Tourism and Hotel Management

emrahozkul@hotmail.com

Yard. Doç. Dr. ŞULE AYDIN

Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University

School of Tourism and Hotel Management

suleaydin2002hotmail.com

Abstract

Tourism, one of the sectors that is largest and fastest improving in the world. For many countries and regions, tourism has an important role to provide employment chance, to improvement infrastructure and superstructure, to grow economy, maintain environment. Canakkale is a city which has historical and cultural heritage and natural sources. City includes the battlefields and memorials of Gallipoli, the legendary ancient city Troy, the mystical and fascinating ancient city Assos, the popular historical resort island Bozcaada, the impressive nature of Ida and so on. This study intended to determine tourism potential of Canakkale with SWOT analysis. With this analysis, strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of tourism potential (ex. the economy and human resources, quality of life, quality of environment, transport, technical infrastructure etc.) and necessary requirements to improve the tourism in Canakkale are determined.

Keywords: Tourism, tourism destination, SWOT Analysis, Canakkale.

Introduction

With the technological innovations, globalization, competition and increasing touristic demand, the importance of destination marketing has been increased in last decade. To gain competitive advantage in destination, basic characteristics of destinations should be determined and evaluated. To reach this aims, effective techniques as SWOT analysis can be used.

This paper tries to determine the strengths and weaknesses of Çanakkale as a tourism destination by utilizing SWOT Analysis, and nevertheless to expose the factors that create opportunities and threats in the region. For this purpose, in this paper, at first, SWOT analysis and using aim of SWOT analysis were explained; afterwards some assessments were made about Çanakkale region through this analysis.

1. Definition of SWOT Analysis and Usage in Tourist Destinations

Term of SWOT comes from the first letters of four English words; Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Treats. SWOT Analysis is a strategic planning tool used to evaluate the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats involved in a project or in a business venture. Strengths and weaknesses are internal to an organization. Opportunities and threats originate from outside the organization. A SWOT analysis, usually performed early in the project development process, helps organizations evaluate the environmental factors and internal situation facing a project (Wikipedia 2007). SWOT analysis is one of the most productive and memorable planning tools (Dwyer and Tanner 2002).

As it can be used for several industrial and commercial sectors. At the same time SWOT analysis is a tool to be profited in order to determine internal (strengths and weaknesses) and external (opportunities and threats) factors of tourism potential of a country or a region and in order to make clear alternative tourism politics of a country (Avcıkurt and others 2003). These strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats can be analyzed to provide support rationale for developing marketing action plans. (Nykiel 1997)

To evaluate environmental conditions of tourism businesses, SWOT analysis is one of the most usable methods. To be able to analyze marketing problems of businesses and to be able to make right decisions, we need information about these four groups (Tekeli 2001). Tourism businesses are easily affected by internal conditions and particularly positive or negative changes that occur in external environmental conditions. Because of the fragile structure of tourism sector it is necessary to apply this analysis. For example, tourism destinations are easily affected by environmental deterioration, over capacity, changes in touristic tastes and preferences, appearance of new tourist destinations and new tourism types, wars and terrorism attacks and in a short period come into face with lack of demand. Lack of demand will cause increasing of inactive capacity or closure of touristic establishments in the region.

If this kind of lack of demand happens in one another industrial sector, that establishment could move to another region or could change type of production or business. But, this is not a solution for tourism establishments, particularly accommodation establishments. Because it is not possible to move accommodation establishments to another region or there is a little chance to change the type of business. Because of this reason, in choosing establishment place of a hotel, holiday village, it is necessary to make SWOT analysis to determine existent business potential as well as future business potential (Oral 2005).

Knowledge and analyzing of strengths and weaknesses of a region or country will help to chose suitable strategies for country or region. Additionally, continuously evaluating alternative possibilities of the country or region will help to be aware of possible mistakes and will create a chance to make necessary revision (Avcıkurt and others 2003)

SWOT analysis, is formed from internal and external environments, and exposes an entire process (Kotler 2001). In figure 1, it is seen usage of internal and external environmental analysis for a tourist destination. According to figure 1, when this process is thought for a tourist destination, at first, it is necessary to determine internal environment of destination (strengths and weaknesses of tourist destination) and to external environment of destination (opportunities and threats for tourist destination). The process is put into practice after determination of objectives, and afterwards controls and feedback are made. During this process, it is necessary to take into consideration strategic harmony.

insert Figure 1 about here

The information that is obtained through SWOT analysis is very important in realizing strategic marketing plans of tourist destinations as well as tourism establishments. In this way, tourism destinations will be able to estimate future more trustworthy by benefiting from past and present datum. By being put into practice of strategic marketing plan, tourism destinations will be in a strong position against rival destinations. (Tunc and Uygur 2002). If the strategic plan is applicable, it is thought that destination is attractive and, in a powerful position as a tourism destination. In a contrary situation, it is not worthy to develop tourism in that destination (Gokce 2006).

In studying of SWOT analysis for a tourist destination, answers can be searched to the following questions (Schartz 2006);

1. What are actual products and services in the tourist destination?

2. What can be future products and services in the tourist destination?

3. How is the image of tourist destination in national and international platform?

4. What is the level of prices of products and services in the tourist destination?

5. What are competitive advantages and disadvantages of the tourist destination compared to other tourist destinations?

6. What is the level of education and professional experiences of staff working at touristic establishments in the destination?

7. What is the share of the tourist destination in country’s tourism revenues?

8. Are there education possibilities for local people and staff working in the destination?

In addition to above questions, for a SWOT analysis much more detailed subjects must take into consideration in order to determine strengths and weaknesses of the region and threats and opportunities that would be occurred in the future. For example; monetary policy, attitudes of local people against tourists, possibilities of tourism investments in micro level to the region and in macro level to the country, development level of other industries except for tourism, physical and service quality level of accommodation and business-tourism facilities, ecological situation, political stability, security, health risk and problems, adequate of infrastructure and superstructure, environmental pollution condition, weather conditions, geopolitics situation, cultural heritage, festivals and entertainment possibilities, niche markets, already available tourism types and development possibilities of other tourism types create opportunities to make SWOT analysis multi dimensional.

A SWOT analysis can be done for Canakkale as follows, by taking into consideration these and similar factors.

2. A SWOT Analysis for Canakkale

2.1. Strengths

· Attractive seashores

· Availability of unspoiled environs such as Gelibolu peninsula

· Nationally and Internationally well known and atttractive historical heritage, such as Troy, Gallipoli and Assos (Behramkale)

· Richness of the region about historical and archeological sites

· Saroz gulf which is one of the cleanest and unspoiled gulf of Turkey, is located in the region

· Mount Ida that is one of the most oxygenious and healthy region, is located between Canakkale and Balikesir provinces

· Richness of the region about various fauna and flora

· Newly opened accommodation facilities

· Possibility of over construction is low because of becoming SIT site of the region

· Because of continuous wind, region is highly attractive of surfers

· Availability of educated and experienced employment force because of four tourism schools located in the region

· Crime level is low in the region which is an important factor in tourism industry

2.2. Weaknesses

· Limited transportation facilities, particularly weak public air transport links.

· Because of geopolitics location, military areas has spreaded widely in the region

· Because of strategic structure, estate prices are highly expensive. This prevents attractive investment opportunities in tourism.

· Inconsistent implementation of Planning regulations causes disorganized constructions

· Infrastructure is inadequate in quality and capacity and cannot to the need of tourism investments

· Lack of regional development plans

· Underdevelopment of highways restricts rapid and safely transportation. Existing road are highly spoiled and bended

· Unexistence of a bridge over the channel causes problems in transpassing of the channel

· Tourism season is very short in the region

· Existence of intense winds throughout the year

2.3. Opportunities

· Because of the natural and geographical possibilities of the region, Alternative types of tourism such as scuba diving and wind surfing can be developed.

· With the special interest tours such as wine tourism, cruising, diving overnight staying of visitors can be increased

· Diverse tourism resources within the region range from nature to culture, history, sports, health and wellness

· Develop the meetings, incentives, conventions and exhibitions market

· Work jointly with public – and private – sector partners in order to concentrate maximum resources for promotion tourism and building positive image.

· Well-established tourism marketing efforts can be organized by sector stakeholders in cooperation

· New investors can be promoted by improving long term tourism development plans and projects

· Cooperation in marketing activities with neighbor provinces can increase arrivals of foreign visitors

· Improving rural tourism products, promoting organic agriculture such as viniculture, olive grove. Environmental improvements in villages, archaeological sites and natural parks

· Transportation facilities can be improved by constructing new motorways and airway companies can increase their flights

· Community based tourism can be improved particularly in rural areas and in islands. By this way local products and local ownership can be promoted

2.4. Threats

· Intense interest and immigration to the region can cause some problems such as increasing noise, traffic, housing, pollution, violence, robbery problems

· Social, cultural structure of local habitants can be affected negatively by developing of tourism

· Resentment from communities due to lack of benefits or due to impact on key community values

· Rising cost of living for local residents

· Uncontrolled influx of more tourists or tourists seeking inappropriate experiences damage to ecosystem from misuse

· Competition nationally and internationally

Conclusion

In recent years, the tourism industry continued to develop despite small growth in the world economy and a recession in some industries. As world globalization takes place, it is predicted that the tourism industry, will continue to develop and renew itself. However, the tourism sector will develop at a gradual pace to maintain stable development. It is necessary to create specific tourism policies for developing a long term plan for tourism industry and to avoid the long term problems associated with faulty tourism development.

In order to eliminate the disadvantages of this type, it is essential to develop long term plans and policies relating to the development of types of alternate, sustainable tourism. Adhere to these plans and policies, but remain flexible to change in response to tourist demands. Sustainability is an essential principle of all future tourism development. The future management of natural, man-made and human assets is critically important for the long-term sustainability of any tourism industry. Developments which adversely impact the environment, which are short-term, high volume and opportunistic in nature should be avoided. Within this vision, it is necessary to determine appropriate and inappropriate factors and try to eliminate inappropriate factors. On the contrary, it must be struggled to improve appropriate ones. In order to reach this objective SWOT analysis is an important and useful guide.

As mentioned above, Canakkale has various properties to become a new and important tourism destination. However, it is understood that particularly insufficient infrastructure and superfrastructrure is an obstacle in development of tourism sector. Cooperation between public and private stakeholders to improve image of the region and try to market the region as a whole Implementing tourism master plan, providing sustainable tourism development, developing alternative types of tourism to produce year around tourism throughout the whole region and developing policies specifically aimed at developing type of alternate tourism based on the culture, historical, and natural richness of the region which very few other provinces in the world possess.

In future studies, a survey can be made and opinions of local habitants, private and public stakeholders can be obtained. SWOT analysis that is presented above can be improved. By this method, not only theoretically but practically as well, it can be determined strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and treats of Canakkale province.

REFERENCES

Avcikurt, C., Koroglu A., & Dogdubay M. (2003). Alternatif turizmin planlanmasında SWOT analizinin uygulanması, Türkiye’nin Alternatif Turizm Potansiyeli ve Güncel Sorunları Konferansı, Cankırı.

Dwyer, R.,& Tanner, J. (2002). Business marketing. Second edition. International edition. NY: McGraw-Hill.

Gokçe, F. (2006). Yerel destinasyonlarda turizm potansiyelinin belirlenmesinde SWOT analizi tekniği: Giresun örneği, Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Mustafa Kemal Universitesi, Sosyal bilimler enstitüsü.

Kotler, P. (2002). Marketing management. Millenium edition. Tenth edition. USA: Pearson Custom Publishing.

Lancester, G., Massingham, L., & Ashford R. (1998). Essentials of marketing, NY: McGraw-Hill

Nykiel, R. (1997). Marketing in the hospitality industry. Third edition. USA: Educational Institute of the American Hotel & motel Association.

Oral, S. (2005). Otel işletmeciliği ve verimlilik analizleri. Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık.

Schwartz, M.(2006). Fundamentals of sales management.NY: Amacom.

Tekeli H. (2001). Turizm pazarlaması ve planlaması. Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık.

Tunç A., & Uygur M. (2002). Güney marmara ve iç anadolu (a) grubu seyahat acentalarının pazarlama faaliyetleri hakkında ampirik bir çalışma, Ticaret Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2002(2), 1-14.

http://www.burasicanakkale.com. (22.01.2007).

http://www.traveldailynews.com. A SWOT Analysis of ASEAN Tourism. (24/01/2007)

http://www.turizm.gov.tr. ( 20.02.2007).

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWOT_analysis..

Figure1 : A SWOT Analysis for Tourist Destination

Reference: Geoff Lancaster, Lester Massingham & Ruth Ashford, Essentials of Marketing, McGraw-Hill, 1998,

THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNITY BASED TOURISM IN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL POPULATION: KYRGYZSTAN CASE

Mustafa Boz (Dr.)

Kyrgyzstan – Turkiye Manas University

720044, Djal Campus KTMU, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan

Phone: 00996 312 502 19 83 94

E-mail: m.b.istanbul@gmail.com

─ABSTRACT ─

Tourism is one of the world’s fastest growing industries. Tourism industry can create employment opportunities, environmental consciousness and protection, and influx of foreign currency etc. to the host nations.

However, it has been recognized that many tourism policies developed from central governments without local involvement fail to cater for sensibilities and aspirations of the communities that tourists visit.

On the other end, community- based tourism (CBT) has been shown to foster local development in developing countries.

As long as tourism development is well planned and monitored, CBT organizations can be an effective means of economic growth, cultural affirmation and environmental protection without compromising a region’s unique attractions.

In both the Namibian and Kyrgyzs cases, an international donor assisted in the creation of a CBT network.

This study evaluates community based tourism. Empirical research has been conductud to find out development and possible effects of CBT in Kyrgyzstan.

Key words: Community- based tourism, Sustainable development, Local communities, Economic and social development, Social – cultural heritage

JEL Classification: R11

TOPLUM TEMELLİ TURİZMİN YEREL NÜFUSUN EKONOMİK VE SOSYAL KALKINMASINDAKİ ÖNEMİ: KIRGIZİSTAN ÖRNEĞİ

- ÖZET –

Turizm dünyanın en hızlı büyüyen endüstrilerinden birisidir. Turizm endüstrisinin, turist kabul eden ülkeler için, istihdam fırsatları yaratılması, çevre bilinci oluşması ile çevrenin korunması ve geliştirilmesi, döviz girişinin artması ve bunun gibi birçok önemli katkısı bulunmaktadır.

Bununla birlikte, birçok turizm politikası, turistlerin ziyaret ettikleri yörelerin beklentileri, ihtiyaçları ve duyarlılıkları göz önüne alınmadan merkezi hükümetler tarafından oluşturulmaktadır.

Diğer tarafta, toplum temelli turizm özellikle gelişmekte olan ülkelerde yerel kalkınmayı sağlamayı hedeflemektedir.

Turizm kalkınması iyi bir şekilde planlanıp yönetildiği taktirde, toplum temelli turizm organizasyonları, bölgenin turizm çekiciliklerini tehlikeye atmadan, bölgenin ekonomik kalkınmasında, kültürel gelişmesinde ve çevrenin korunmasında önemli roller oynayabilirler.

Hem Nabibya hem de Kırgızistan örneklerinde uluslararası yardım organizasyonları toplum temelli turizm ağı oluşturulmasına yardımcı olmuşlardır.

Bu çalışmada; toplum temelli turizm kavramı açıklanmakta, toplum temelli turizmin sürdürülebilir turizm kalkınmasındaki yeri ve önemi vurgulanmaya çalışılmaktadır.

Bunun yanında, özellikle gelişmekte olan ülkelerde, yerel toplulukların ekonomik ve kültürel gelişmesi, turizmin en önemli girdilerinden olan doğal ortamın korunup geliştirilmesi bakımından toplum temelli turizmin sağlayacağı katkılar irdelenmeye çalışılmaktadır.

Çalışmanın uygulama bölümünde de toplum temelli turizmin, 2007 yılına kadar Kırgızistan’daki gelişmesi ve muhtemel etkileri ortaya çıkartılmaya çalışılmaktadır.

Temel Kelimeler: Toplum Temelli Turizm, Sürdürülebilir Turizm, Yerel Topluluklar, Ekonomik ve Sosyal Gelişme, Sosyal – Kültürel değerler.

JEL Sınıflaması: R11

1. INTRODUCTION

Tourism is one of the world’s fastest growing industries and a major source of foreign exchange for many developing countries. Employment opportunities, environmental consciousness and protection, and an influx of foreign currency to the host nation are just a few examples of the contributions that the tourism industry can make to the economy of a country. (Aydin and Boz 2006:1) However it has been recognized that many tourism policies developed from central governments without local involvement fail to cater for the sensibilities and aspirations of the communities that tourists visit. (Harris and Vogel, 2007:2)

The influence of travel and tourism on a community is significant. Most obviously, tourists bring revenue. However, how this revenue is attracted and the number of people who reap the benefits vary greatly. So does the way the money is spent and how it is reinvested. At one extreme, large scale, all-inclusive resorts owned and operated by corporations may have little or no economic influence on a community. Tourists may be flown in, bused to the site, kept “secure” behind patrolled fences, and in some cases given neither the encouragement nor opportunity to spend time or money beyond the borders of the resort. People from the community may be offered only low-skilled minimum wage jobs. In these extreme cases, tourism becomes a highly sanitized, in-resort experience. The influence of this type of resort on the community is minimal. In effect, there are tourists, but no tourism industry. (Hatton 2007:1,2)

In order to diminish negative impacts of tourism policies, significantly though, the 1999 meeting of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development urged governments to “maximize the potential of tourism for eradicating poverty by developing appropriate strategies in co-operation with all major groups, indigenous and local communities.” (Roe, 2001:2)

In order to raise awareness of the positive impacts of tourism and to become widespread of tourism revenues WTO launched a campaign. The “Tourism Enriches” campaign was launched at the First World Conference on Tourism Communications (TOURCOM) end of January 2004 in Madrid. The aims of “Tourism Enriches” campaign are to promote tourism as a basic human right and way of life, to stimulate communication about the benefits of tourism as the most prospective economic activity for the local communities and countries, to enhance cooperation between destinations and the tourism industry with the local, regional and international media and to link individual tourism entities to the larger community of international tourism. (WTO, 2007:1)

With its declaration WTO notes that ”The growing socioeconomic importance of tourism all over the world and especially in many developing countries; The effective contribution of tourism to the achievement of several Millenium Development Goals, as already recognized by the WSSD in Johannessburg and the Brussels Programme of Action, especially those relating to poverty alleviation, environmental conservation and creation of employment opportunities for women, indigenous communities and young people” (WTO, 2005:1

2. THE COMMUNITY - BASED TOURISM INDUSTRY

The importance of Community – Based Tourism (CBT) increases over time, while countries and public being aware of positive and negative impacts of tourism industry. The objectives of CBT are suitable to the aims of UN Commission on Sussainable Development and the “Tourism Enrcihes” campaign and declaration of WTO which can be summarized as “to gain local economic development, reach some forms of participation, provide socially and environmentially responsible ewperience for visistors, and bring positive effect on the conservation of natural and cultural sources. (IGES, 2007:143)

2.1. Definition of Community - Based Tourism

Community – based tourism implicates different subjects and can be defined in different ways such as;

Community tourism (sometimes called community-based tourism) is a form of tourism which aims to include and benefit local communities, particularly indigenous peoples and villagers in the rural . (Tourism Concern, 2007:1)

A community by definition implies individuals with some kind of collective responsibility, and the ability to make decisions by representative bodies.
Community based tourism is tourism in which local residents (often rural, poor and economically marginalized) invite tourists to visit their communities with the provision of overnight accommodation. (Responsible Travel, 2007:1)

The community tourism industry is, quite simply, the collection of businesses that creates and sells a variety of goods and services to visitors. The development of these industries is a growing phenomenon as communities respond to the opportunities, and in some cases the threats, of tourism. (Hatton 2007:2)

According to World Wildlife Fund” “CBT is a form of tourism where the local community has a substantial control over and involvement in its development and management; and a major proportion of the benefits remain within the community” (Driskel, 2006:6)

2.2. Successful Implementation of CBT

Successful CBT implementation strategy must incorporate detailed preimplementation feasibility studies, appropriate training for involved locals, a regional CBT network with guaranteed initial technical and monetary support and affective monitoring and evaluation mechanisms. As well as tourism development is well planned and monitored, CBT organizations can be an effective means of economic growth, cultural affirmation and environmental protection without compromising a region’s unique attractions. (Driskel, 2006:7)

Another theme is that of leadership. Often the development of community-based tourism can be linked to the initial spark and leadership of one person or a small group. Fostering change and development on a community-wide scale is not easy. It requires someone with vision, imagination, and great energy.

In other cases, local and regional governments have provided leadership to develop or expand community-based tourism. (Hatton 2007:4)

2.3. Goals of CBT

International organizations and donors have increasingly bet supporting sustainable tourism projects. These projects aim to assist rural poor in utilizing their resources at hand, such as cultural heritage and wildlife, to capitalize on the growing international tourism market. (Akunay and others, 2003:1). Within this approach

Community-based tourism typically subscribes to a number of broadly defined goals. Perhaps most important, community-based tourism is socially sustainable. This means the tourism activities are developed and operated, for the most part, by local community members, and certainly with their consent and support. This is not to suggest that there aren’t dissenting views on tourism development when carried out at the local level, but it does imply that there is a forum for debate, and that the community encourages participation. It’s also important that a reasonable share of the revenues are enjoyed by the community in one way or another. This may include revenue streams which go to co-ops, joint ventures, community associations, businesses that widely employ local people, or to a range of entrepreneurs starting or operating small- and medium-sized enterprises. (Hatton 2007:2)

Perhaps more importantly for poverty reduction efforts, tourism has the potential to channel investments directly to the rural communities where poverty is concentrated (URT, 2002). This can be done through CBT, which consists of tourism activities carried out on community lands in partnership with local people. CBT is important not only for rural poverty reduction efforts but also in terms of diversifiying the tourism industry itself. . (Akunaay and others, 2003:2)

2.4. Benefits of CBT

2.4.1 Tourism that benefits local people

Community –based development empower people to be more aware of the value of their community assets – their culture, heritage, cuisine and lifestyle. It mobilizes them to convert these into income generating projects while offering a more diverse and worthwhile experience to visitors. Every citizen is a potential business partner to be trained in small business management, environmental awareness product development and marketing. This type of people-centered’ tourism promotes a sense of ‘ownership’ which augurs well for the industry’s sustainability. (TPDCO, 2007:1) For instance, villagers might host tourists in their village, managing the scheme communally and sharing the profits. There are many types of community tourism project, including many in which the ‘community’ works with a commercial tour operator, but all community tourism projects should give local people a fair share of the benefits/profits and a say in deciding how incoming tourism is managed. (Tourism Concern, 2007:1)

The residents earn income as land managers, entrepreneurs, service and produce providers, and employees. At least part of the tourist income is set aside for projects which provide benefits to the community as a whole. (Responsible Travel 2007:1)

Another theme linked to the development of community-based tourism is the growth of employment opportunities, particularly for women, young people and aboriginals. For many people in societies throughout the world, the opportunity to earn money doesn’t come easily. Entrepreneurs of all sorts, including business people, artists, educators, and others who present or exemplify their culture and crafts, develop rapidly within the vicinity of any community-based tourism project, giving birth to all sorts of jobs and job opportunities. (Hatton 2007:5-6)

2.4.2.Tourism that benefits tourists

These tours open up a world of adventure and opportunity. Visit the Amazon… trek through the Andes or the Sinai… experience the magic of the central Australian desert… Good community-based tours take you beyond mainstream tourism. You’ll meet people from different countries and learn far more about them and their culture than on conventional tours. You’ll feel better knowing that your visit is genuinely helping your hosts. And if you want to simply lie on a beach…. well, there are tours here that feature some of the best beaches on the planet. (Tourism Concern, 2007:1)

Community based tourism enables the tourist to discover local habitats and wildlife, and celebrates and respects traditional cultures, rituals and wisdom. The community will be aware of the commercial and social value placed on their natural and cultural heritage through tourism, and this will foster community based conservation of these resources. (Responsible Travel 2007:1)

2.4.3. Tourism that benefits natural and socio cultural environments

Another important feature of community-based tourism is its respect for local culture, heritage and traditions. Often, community-based tourism actually reinforces and sometimes rescues these. Similarly, community-based tourism implies respect and concern for the natural heritage, particularly where the environment is one of the attractions. (Hatton 2007:2)

Community tourism promoters need to evaluate natural resources in an area and find what is special locally, and market those resources. A community must have a plan to protect their resources before they use them, or risk destruction of the resources which attract tourists. (OSES, 2007:4)

2.5. Properties of CBT

According to Tourism Concern CBT should have following properties :
1. Be run with the involvement and consent of local communities.
(Local people should participate in planning and managing the tour.)
2. Give a fair share of profits back to the local community.
(Ideally this will include community projects (health, schools, etc).)
3. Involve communities rather than individuals.
(Working with individuals can disrupt social structures.)
4. Be environmentally sustainable
(Local people must be involved if conservation projects are to succeed.)
5. Respect traditional culture and social structures.
6. Have mechanisms to help communities cope with the impact of western tourists.
7. Keep groups small to minimize cultural / environmental impact.
8. Brief tourists before the trip on appropriate behaviour.
9. Not make local people perform inappropriate ceremonies, etc.
10. Leave communities alone if they don’t want tourism.
(People should have the right to say ‘no’ to tourism.) . (Tourism Concern, 2007:1)

2.6. CBT and Sustainable Tourism

As we can understand from definitions, CBT and Sustainable Tourism shares similar values. (Figure 1.)

“Sustainable tourism” is difficult to define. It means different things in different contexts. For example it might refer only to environmental sustainability or only to economic viability. Here we describe sustainable tourism as “an enterprise that achieves an effective balance between the environmental, economic, and socio-cultural aspects of tourism development in order to guarantee long-term benefits to recipient communities. (Driskel, 2006:5-6)

The World Tourism Organization defined sustainable tourism as early as 1988 as “leading to the management of all resources in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems.” (Roe, 2001:2)

Figure- 1: Concept of Sustainable Development for Community – Based Tourism in Protected Area

3. TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN KYRGYZSTAN

Tourism industry is an initial and growing sector in Kyrgyzstan. During the last few years this growth was quite obvious. The number of tourists between 2002 and 2005 increased 2,3 times, from 139.600 to 319.300 tourists. Consequently, the export of tourist services increased from 35,7 millions to 71,6 millions USD. (Сманкулова, 2007)

According to Border Guards data, in the first 9 months of 2006 there were 900.000 incoming tourists. This is a 21.9 % increase when compared to 2005.

About 80% of these were holidaymakers from CIS countries, including 60% from Kazakhstan , Russia (15%) and Uzbekistan (3%). About 20% of tourists were Kyrgyz citizens. Added value in tourism was 2883,9 millions soms in 2006, 28,8 % higher than the one in 2004 and 23,2% higher than the value in 2005. (Kyrgyz Tourism Today: 2007)

Tourism in the Republic continues to develop. Kyrgyzstan has great potential to attract not only regional, but also international tourists and tourism is already attracting internal and external investment and creating new jobs that are very important for the Republic and the population. Tourism in the Republic continues to develop. Kyrgyzstan has a great potential to attract not only regional, but also international tourists and tourism is already attracting the internal and external investment and creating new jobs that are very important for the Republic and the population. (Tourism Market in Kyrgyzstan, 2006:2)

In recent years, thanks to the state support, and a fortunate state of affairs in world markets, international tourism is playing an important role in the republic, through contributing to the socio-economic development of the state. On the initiative of the President, tourism has become a key segment in the economic development of Kyrgyzstan as a part of the Country Development Strategy (CDS) for 2006-2010 and tourism industry was designated an important part of the economy of Kyrgyzstan, having distinct export potential and increasing the state budget. (Kyrgyz Tourism Today,2007)

3.1. CBT in Kyrgyzstan

There are some successful CBT networks established with international donor assistance. Two of them are the Namibian Community-Based Tourism Association originating from USAID project, and the Kyrgyz Community-Based Tourism Assosiation founded by Helvetas of Switzerland. In both cases, similar strategies were used to improve the living level of local citizens through alternative tourism. In both the Namibian and Kyrgyzs cases, and international donner assisted in the creation of a CBT network, but with a 3-5 year goal of establishing locally managed and financially sustainable organization. (Driskel, 2006:8)

The Kyrgyz Community Based Tourism Association “Hospitality Kyrgyzstan (KCBTA) is a membership-based association of community based tourism enterprises in rural Kyrgyzstan. The association provides support to its member organizations by marketing, training and organizational development and also represents its member’s interests in policy development at the national level and in negotiations with the mainstream tourism industry (Helvetas, 2007 ).

KCBTA is located in the capital Bishkek, KCBTA is an umbrella association uniting 17 diverse destination communities (“CBT groups”) plus a 5-group association of shepherd families offering jailoo (yurt) tourism (“Shepherds’ Life”). The CBT association was registered on January 3, 2003 with the support of Helvetas Kyrgyzstan Programme’s Community Based Tourism Support Project (CBT SP) with operations throughout the country.

The association’s objective is to improve living conditions in remote mountain regions by developing a sustainable and wholesome ecotourism model that utilizes local natural and recreational resources.  (KCBTA Hospitality Kyrgyzstan)

3.2. The main tasks of KCBTA:

• One of the main tasks of KCBTA is to raise the economic benefits (income and employment levels) of selected rural areas through tourism in order to improve the living standards of local people. (Raeva:2005)
• KCBTA provides support to member organizations by marketing their services and products, providing business training, seminars and study tours. (CBTQ, 2006)
• KCBTA is aimed to incorporate CBT into the mainstream of tourism industry. The enterprises that are members of KCBTA cater to a wide range of tourists. (Raeva:2005)
• The association showcases each region`s best attractions. Local community members present attractions and their beauty with intimate, age old, insight and immersion in their lifestyle, history and culture. (Guidebook, 2006)

3.3. Services offered by KCBTA

Services of offered by CBT-groups in 2006 are as follows (Table 1)

Table -1: Services Offered by CBT-Groups i

Source: Community Based Tourism Guidebook, (2006), The Kyrgyz Community Based Tourism Association (KCBTA) “Hospitality Kyrgyzstan”

3.4. The benefits of CBT to Kyrgyzstan

KCBTA has done an interview among CBT-members that purposed to collect information about CBT families. 141 families, 34 % of the total families participated in the interview. Total 414 families (360 families CBT members+54 families from new groups).

Figure 2: Statement of Work of CBT-Groups Except Tourism Sector

Source: KCBTA:2007

As shown at Figure 2, 30% of the CBT-members don’t work at all, %8 are retired, other %62 of members have an another job other tourism business.

(KCBTA:2007a) In a country where the average professional salary is only € 50 a month, local people can earn extra income by opening their homes to tourists. Yet the tourists also benefit, not only from cheap accommodation but also the chance to gain fascinating glimpses into Kyrgyz culture, traditions and way of life. (Kelly, 2007)

Inquiry shows that CBT-members’ income sources are: %20 of CBT-members work as a civil servant, % 16 - are farmers, % 18 work at tourism area, %13 of members breads livestock and others are retired or have another source of income. So, for rural citizens working at tourism area may give important ratio of income.

Table-2: Annual Income of CBT-members from Tourism Business.

Source: Interview with Aisha Mambetalieva, Head of Marketing Department CBT-Kyrgyzstan, April 2007

The total income earned by CBT members in 2002 was 25490,5 USD. (Table 2) In comparison with 2002, in 2006 total income increased and composed 134765,2 USD which shows 529 % rise.( KCBTA, 2007b, Рынок Экотуризма в Кыргызстане, 2004 )

Contributions of communities in developing CВТ-groups are as follows:

Ú increasing the quality of the given services

Ú assisting in organization of some actions, festivals, etc.

Ú continuously paying commissions

Ú working as a service-provider

Ú

helping and developing the CBT-groups (KCBTA, 2007 )

4. CONCLUSION

Tourism is one of the biggest sectors in the world. Due to the opportunities of employment and foreign currency revenue it enabled, tourism is getting more essential especially for developing and underdeveloped countries.

In order for creating new opportunities for employment in a very short time and increasing foreign currency revenue, the tourist destination countries enable various inducements for local and foreign investors.

These inducements usually appeal to mass tourism. As the mass tourism appears in the spotlight, the tourism investments are focusing initially on the coasts, then on some specific regions of the country. Besides, as a characteristic of the mass tourism, tourism is getting more intense during some specific seasons and accommodation facilities being upfront, tourism investments are in large scales.

As a conclusion, since there is not enough capital fund in the developing and underdeveloped tourist destination countries, tourism investments such as transportation, accommodation and tour guiding are being done by grand international investors.

In this case, tourism incomes return not to the tourist destination countries but to the tourist sending developed countries.

Besides, due to the mass tourism is close to all inclusive system and due to the low income of the tourists who joined the mass tourism, the desired employment opportunities and tourism incomes could not be enabled.

Finally, the tourism’s focusing on some specific regions during in specific seasons in mass tourism is leading to environmental problems.

In view of such negative influences of the traditional mass tourism and the changing tourist preferences, searches for alternative tourism models have gained pace in recent years.

Community based tourism happens to be an important matter especially for a sustainable development of underdeveloped and developing tourist destination countries.

The main properties for CBT are:

The local people’s (as managers, employees, investors etc.) getting involved in tourism actively and having a big share from the tourism incomes.

The expand of tourism in different regions of the country in different seasons,

Local, cultural and natural features’ getting in spot light,

The tourism’s being sustainable,

Local community’s having the right to talk about the planning of tourism and managing it

The tourism in Kyrgyzstan is getting in spot light as a pioneer sector for the country’s development. The tourism in Kyrgyzstan is scarcely in infancy phase. Six years ago, in the leadership of Switzerland centered Helvetas, Kyrgyz Community Based Tourism Association was founded. The number of the local members is increasing day by day and has reached 450s.

In the following years, it is being considered that the CBT tourism in Kyrgyzstan will develop gradually and contribute to the tourism and the development of the country.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Akunaay, Mustapha, Fred Nelson and Elizabeth Singleton (2003) “Community Basted Tourism in Tanzania: Potantial and Perils in Practice”, 2nd IITP African Conference on Pease Thourough Tourism, 2003

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THE IMPORTANCE OF ALTERNATE TYPES OF TOURISM IN THE CONTINUOUS DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOURISM INDUSTRY: ANTALYA CASE

*Asst.of Prof. Dr. Şule AYDIN

Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University

School of Tourism and Hotel Management

E-mail: suleaydin2002@hotmail.com

Dr. Mustafa BOZ

Kırgızistan-Türkiye Manas University

Faculty of Economics and Businesss Administration

E-mail: m.b.istanbul@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

Tourism is one of the world’s fastest growing industries and a major source of foreign exchange for many developing countries.Employment opportunities, environmental consciousness and protection, and an influx of foreign currency to the host nation are just a few examples of the contributions that the tourism industry can make to the economy of a country. Most examples show that the benefits from foreign tourism will significantly outweigh the promotional costs only when the tourism industry is developed in a sustained and planned manner. Although tourism can be highly diverse, two broad types can be distinguished; traditional mass tourism and alternative tourism. For the last twenty years, mass tourism has failed to achieve its because of environmental and cultural reasons. Holiday resort areas are located in certain densely populated regions of countries; especially in the bay areas as in Turkey. Erosion of sea shores, deforestation, and spoiling of other natural environmental beauties are a result of pollution created by the overcrowding of people in certain places at certain times of the year. Types of alternate tourism have emerged in order to reduce the negative effects of traditional mass tourism and to meet the demands of tourists seeking new experiences. Ecotourism, green tourism, nature tourism, culture tourism, and adventure tourism are some types of alternative tourism.This study evaluates types of alternate of tourism, which emerged in response to the persistant problems of the tourism industry in Antalya. Empirical research has been conducted to find out possible types of alternate of tourism via interviews with travel agencies located in Antalya. This research aimed to reveal the problems and needs of the tourism sector in Antalya. It also aimed to learn the ways to develop types of alternate tourism in an cost-effective way based on the information gathered from the travel agencies which are the main marketers of tourism.

Keywords: Alternative Tourism, Mass Tourism, Sustainable Tourism, Antalya

INTRODUCTION

For many countries, especially developing ones, the tourism industry is seen as an important income source. Those developing countries, which have a weak balance of trade, see the tourism industry as a quick way of balancing their trade through rapid development of tourist amenities for gaining foreign currency.

The tourism industry is an important source for creating new job opportunities throughout the world. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council, there are more than 200 million people working directly or indirectly in the tourism industry. This illustrates that one in nine people in the world economy work in the tourism industry (Wheat, 2003).

It is necessary to carefully study the impact of a rapidly developed tourism industry in developing countries since there may be many unforeseable economic, cultural and environmental implications due to the development of the tourism industry.

In developing a tourism industry it is possible to make many mistakes in investments and tourism policies in trying to attract tourists. Many hidden costs associated with mass tourism are not taken into consideration. The rapid development of tourism can destroy local communities, environments, local cultures and ecosystems. The spoiling of cultural, natural and historical environments that form the most important aspects of the tourism industry create big problems which are very difficult to renovate (Nepuni ,2002).

Tourism which is developed as an alternative to traditional mass tourism tries to prevent deterioration caused by traditional mass tourism and tries to restore the business apprehension and structure of the tourism industry.

Types of alternate tourism can come in different forms and various models. Types of alternate tourism consist of such themes as culture and history tourism, rural and ethical tourism, ecotourism, national parks and preserved areas, nation based tourism etc. For example; rural tourism tries to preserve original rural attractiveness. At the same time, it tries to promote services of local businesses and jobs whilst resisting the development of modern holiday villages in rural areas (San, 1997).

Some other benefits of alternative tourism are to make tourism available throughout the year instead of one or two seasons, spread tourism to all areas throughout the country instead of some regions, and to increase participation of the local population and entrepreneurs to tourism industry.

Sustainable tourism that essentially tries to preserve and develop natural and cultural environments is another form of alternative tourism. The basis of sustainable tourism is creating harmony between the social and cultural point of view, and maintaining a balance between the ecology and economic factors for the long term. (Kiskeya, http://www.kiskeya-alternative.org/descrip-eng.html).

This paper tries to determine the importance and impacts of types of alternate tourism have for increasing the benefits of the tourism industry in Antalya in the long term. The importance of the development of types of alternate tourism industry are explored and studied.

Various forms of alternative tourism in Antalya are researched. An interview form was used to solicit the opinions of travel agencies about the possibilities for types of alternate tourism in Antalya. Travel agencies are companies specializing in the marketing of the travel (tourism) industry.

Concept and Importance of Types of Alternate Tourism

1980 is used as a reference mark for the tourism industry in Turkey. After 1980, there was a huge development in the tourism industry The number of tourists dramatically increased the amount of foreign currency available for balance of trade equalization.. “The Tourism Promotion Act” no. 2634 helped to promote the tourism industry in ways not previously seen.

During this period there were large tourism investments in the erection of new hotels and holiday villages substantially increasing the number of beds available for tourists. These investments were primarily aimed at promoting mass tourism, traditionally referred to 3 S (Sea-Sand-Sun) tourism. As a result after 1980 beach resorts were mostly occupied by concrete, high storey buildings. Natural, cultural and historical environments were ignored (Yalçın, 2001).

Together with “The Tourism Promotion Act “ in Turkey, the seashores of the Mediterranean and Aegean seas experienced dense development causing apprenhension regarding the traditional tourism viewpoint relating to summer tourism or 3 S (Sea-Sand-Sun) tourism relative to the tourism industry.Traditional tourism is usually used as the the first stage of developing tourism in one country or region.

Traditional tourism is referred to as the 3’S (Sea-Sand-Sun) tourism and the primary source of tourism in the Mediterranean, Aegean and Marmara Regions even up to the present time based on a period from April to October as the tourism season (Tokmak, 2004).

In the Turkish tourism industry, the predominant form is coastal (seaside) tourism. Coastal tourism depends on sea-sand and sun, addresses masses and is available in other Mediterranean countries and in many places around the world. For that reason competition for attracting tourists is severe, and the risk of loosing market share is high (Köletavitoğlu,2002).

Until the second half of 1990, 3 S (Sea-Sand-Sun) form of tourism was that largely accepted by most countries. However, with the change of tourist preferences, countries, companies and agencies associated with the tourism industry were forced to supply new touristic products. Countries having existing tourism potential started developing new touristic products, destinations and strategies to be able to compete and to receive higher market share. As a result of this, types of alternate tourism concept has emerged (Aymankuy and Aymankuy, 2003).

Abroad the 3”S (Sea-Sand-Sun) tourism model appeals mostly to travellers at the low income level. This translates into a large number of travellers but with a limited amount of spending money. This situation leads to employing more staff at considerable expense but with little economic return and limited foreign exchange currency revenues. This illustrates the need to create new destinations and increase the variety of tourism products.

In addition to increasing the variety of tourism products, new ideas have been expressed on how minimize the negative effects of mass tourism have on destroying the natural environment. These ideas are broadly titled as “Alternative Tourism” (Burns and Holden, 1995).

Types of alternate tourism are a new concept hard to define which appears to be derived from the reactions to mass tourism and is proposed as an alternative. For this reason, mass tourism is characterized as “hard”; alternative tourism is characterized as “soft”. Types of alternate tourism are also described as green, rural, or ecotourism.

Cater (1995) emphasizes the fact that many characteristics of alternative tourism are opposite to the characteristics of mass tourism. The most important difference between mass tourism and types of alternate tourism is that types of alternate tourism is more effective on a smaller scale For instance, smaller hotels or pensions can be operated instead of bigger hotels, such as Hilton or Hyatt. The number of rooms and beds can be the same as the numbers in a big hotel due to a larger number of smaller hotels owned and operated by local entrepreneurs.This ensures that income derived from types of alternate tourism and touristic sources remain thus creating new job opportunities for local people, and demand for the services they provide (Burns and Holden, 1995).

Based on these concepts types of alternate tourism can be described as follows;

· A type of tourism that encourages the development of new hotels not only around the shore areas but also in rural areas and providing alternate touristic activities throughout the whole year.

· Ecotourism, soft tourism, or sustainable tourism developed and implemented to resolve mainly environmental problems created by bigger groups of people participating in an unplanned manner in the sea-sand-sun form of tourism.

· An opposite to Mass Tourism.

· Types of alternate tourism which have occurred was described by Aymankuy and Aymankuy 2003 as follows;

o Changes in the demands of tourists,

o A reduction in the mass form of tourism at certain periods of time and in certain regions of the country and extending touristic activities to the whole country throughout the year,

o By attracting more tourists the host countries increase tourism revenues to offset their balance of payments in a positive way,

o By developing types of alternative tourism suited to every region throughout the country, new touristic services can be created thereby minimizing differences between regions,

o By creating protected areas in the country new tourism facilities can be utilised in a more balanced and effective manner.,

o By creating new employment opportunities, brought about by new development and tourist demands, in an industry already employing a large workforce, provides the opportunity to operate utilize this workforcr throughout the whole year

o The tourism industry affects more than 30 different sectors directly or indirectly which providing an increased positive effect on general economic conditions, ,

o By varying types of tourism, demand and promotion activities will increase.

o These touristic promotional activities will promote cultural and economic policies.

In the light of reasons pointed out above, the Turkish tourism industry has reached a point where it must realize that in addition to the traditional 3’S , sea - sand – sun, types of alternate tourism emphasizing the cultural and historical heritage of the country, present many possibilities which should be considered. By realizing the value of this type of tourism, presents the opportunity for it to be provided at a low cost in some regions during certain seasons of the year on a scale suitable for smaller groups of tourists.

One of the most important reasons for developing alternative types of tourism are the revenues that can be generated however, initial development costs for types of alternative tourism are more than those associated with 3’ S (Sea - sand - sun) tourism. Unfortunately, due to the lack of planning and policy making relating to investment and promotion in the Turkish tourism industry, left many areas barren and subject to severe competition from other sectors of the Turkish economy (Köletavitoğlu, 2002).

Turkey has an important potential with her precious natural, cultural and climatically beautiful regions to attract the worldwide demand for adventure tourism, ecotourism and special cultural tours. Turkey has one of the richest cultural and archeological heritages in the Mediterranean region containing over sixty thousand historical remains which have been barely visited by tourists and yet remains the wealthiest country of the Mediterranean region.

The document “Vision 2023 Transportation and Tourism Pre-report of TUBITAK” suggests that for development in the tourism industry, types of alternate tourism must be promoted. Since tourists preferences are likely to be be polarized, the demand for new and varied types of alternative tourism will be increased and the emphasis on comfort and adventure are likely to be dominant factors.

In product development, the 3’S (Sea-Sand-Sun) type of tourism will be superseded by the 3’E (Exiting - Educational - Entertainment) type of tourism (Avcıkurt, Köroğlu and Doğdubay 4.5.2004, s.2). For this reason, it is necessary to table the development of types of alternate tourism in a balanced manner.

Understanding how a stable and balanced tourism industry can be achieved will help address sustainable tourism. Sustainable tourism aims to establish a balance of “optimization”instead of “profit maximization” in the long term for developing countries. In establishing such a balance, the important advantages of continuous mass tourism and increased tourism revenues can be compared against the development of types of alternate tourism in a sustainable tourism context. (Birkan 2002).

Research on Types of Alternate Tourism Available in Antalya and Surrounding Areas

Antalya is known as the “Turkish Riviera” because of its archeological and natural beauties. Antalya has one of the most beautiful and the cleanest seashore and clearest water in the Mediterranean with a magical harmony of the sun, sea, history and nature. Along the entire 630 km length of Antalya seashore there are antique cities, antique harbors, mausoleums, bays like lacework, sandy beaches, and forests (Minister of Culture and Tourism, 2003).

Tourism in Antalya is based on five important natural and historical elements: “warm Mediterranean climate, sea, sandy beaches, seashores, and historical heritage”. The Antalya seashore attracts the “sea - sand - sun” type of traditional mass tourism preferred by European tourists seeking a warm climate and sea. The natural surroundings, historical and cultural richness help to increase the variety of tourism activities (Siyahhan, 1999).

As indicated in Action Plan of Antalya Agenda 21, the Antalya region becomes densely populated only in the six month period of the summer season despite the increased construction of tourist accommodation and increased bed capacity. 80 % of the total tourist population visit during the summer season, with the remaining 20 % of tourists visiting during the other six months off season. It is predicted that by taking the necessary steps to diversify touristic products a greater number of tourists will visit the Antalya area during the winter and spring seasons. This predicted increase in tourism will have a vitally important, positive, effect on the utilization of the labour force and associated impact on the socio-economic development throughout the region.

Whilst the seashores of the Antalya region have traditionally attracted the 3’ S (Sea-Sand-Sun) type of mass tourism with its luxury hotels and holiday villages,a new understanding of how by offering alternative programs and projects are able to increase tourism revenues that can be shared with local population is required.

The local population receives less daily income from the tourist industry due to because hotels and holiday villages implementing an all inclusive payment system for tourist attractions and amenities. This hotel policy increases complaints of lack of trade by small businesses lack of employment opportunity for local people, particularly the young population, and unbalanced earnings affecting life style expectations.

For the reasons stated above, the tourism industry in Antalya region has reached a point where types of alternative tourism must be taken into consideration as an addition to the traditional 3’s ( sea-sand-sun) type of mass tourism..

The Antalya region has very important resources for different types of alternate tourism.. By evaluating these resources it is likely that new investments in tourist related industries will spread inland of the region and allow tourism to take place throughout the whole of the year. This will allow the local population to be involved more in the tourism industry resulting in the distribution of revenues generated by tourism to be shared more equally amongst the population.

Types of alternate tourism such as city tourism, rural tourism, mountain and plateau tourism, winter tourism, sports tourism, golf tourism, bicycle tourism, botanic and bird watching tourism, hunting and fishing tourism, camping and caravan tourism, cruise tourism, canyoning, rafting and diving tourism, cavern tourism, yacht tourism, congress, seminar and fair exhibition tourism, shopping tourism, health tourism, culture and history tourism, belief tourism, entertainment and adventure tourism must be developed in the Antalya tourism industry.

Purpose of the Research

For years, many developing countries looked upon the tourism industry as an important resource for generating economic income. However, to implement a successful tourist industry policy, it is necessary to carefully examine how the tourism industry should be developed and the impact it will have on the country. It is important that a policy is adopted to maintain sustainable tourism development. This can only be achieved by emphasizing the importance of developing types of alternative tourism embracing a variety of different activities.

This research is aimed at obtaining data based upon the viewpoints expressed by travel agencies about the types of alternate tourism opportunities available and the importance of developing types alternate tourism throughout the Antalya region. Travel agencies operating in Antalya region were chosen since they were likely to have the best knowledge for marketing these new activities in the tourism industry.

The purpose for obtaining this data is to assist in the development of the tourism industry and understanding how the benefits of developing policies for different types of alternate tourism can affect future touristic trends without destroying the traditional 3’S type of tourism.

Basis of the Research

Antalya province attracts most tourists and has the most potential for developing different types of alternate tourism and the infrastructure for promoting types of alternate tourism. The source of the research data is A Group Travel Agencies that operate throughout the Antalya region. The choice of travel agencies canvassed was based on their, membership of TURSAB (Association of Turkish Travel Agencies). This category of membership showed that 474 A Group Travel Agencies operate throughout Antalya province. Data was collected from 154of the 474 A Group Travel Agencies indicating that 32 % of the membership responded to the survey.

Method of the Research

In order to obtain the best data for the research a method of data collection utilizing an inquiry form consisting of 20 questions based on the use of existing literature. To ensure a quick response, inquiry forms were filled out using a face to face method. The data was evaluated using SPSS for Windows 13 packet program (Statistical Program for Social Sciences) due to codes used in the data inquiry forms for making the necessary analysis.

Results of the Research

Results of the research data are summarised as follows:

Based on the questions relating to the development levels of types of tourism 3 S (Sea - sand - sun) tourism known as traditional mass tourism, is perceived as the most developed type of tourism by 72.7% of the respondents. Culture and history tourism (10.5%) and entertainment tourism (8.1%) are perceived to be the first choice for developement when compared to mass tourism.

Other types of alternate tourism such as rafting, diving, sports tourism, shopping tourism, golf tourism, and congress and seminar tourism are equally ranked by only 2 % of administrators of agencies as developed types of tourism.The development of alternate types of tourism can be a supplement to tourism revenues presently generated in Antalya province. According to the opinions of agency managers, it is perceived that the biggest supplements can be obtained from the development of gambling tourism (79.5 %) culture and golf tourism (61.7 %), and history tourism (57.7 %), Other types of alternate tourism such as entertainment tourism 42.5 %, fair, exhibition tourism 36.4 %, yacht tourism 31.6 %, sports tourism 31.8 % , belief (religion) tourism 31.1 %, congress and seminar tourism 29.1 %, cruise tourism 23.0 %, shopping tourism 19.7 % are seen as another source of creating increased tourism revenues throughout Antalya province. Other alternate types of tourism such as cavern tourism, bicycle tourism, mountain and plateau tourism, and rafting, diving tourism are only likely to increase tourism revenue by less than 10.0 %.

When the managers of travel agencies were asked the reason for developing alternate types of tourism when compared to the arithmetical average values of the research data the main reason is seasonality of 3 S (Sea-Sand-Sun) tourism (3.93%). Other reasons were the decline of tourism incomes (3.68%) due to traditional 3 S mass tourism effecting nature (2.88%) tourism investments in densely populated regions (2.23%) and severe competition in sea-sand-sun tourism (1.62%).

When agency managers were asked to express opinions about the advantages of developing alternate types of tourism these were ranked as follows; participation of the local population in the tourism industry and increased income (86.4 %); important to increase the development and preservation of natural and cultural environments (85.7 %)an increase of . interest by national and local investors to invest in the tourism industry (80.5 %), tourism development is planned (71.2 %), and the desire to increase tourism revenues (70.1 %).

Other important opportunities identified are as follows: the ability to create an increase in new employment opportunities (69.1 %), the potential to increase the number of tourists (61.0 %), increased market growth (61.0 %), the development of the tourism industry in various regions previously not considered as tourist areas (59.1 %), year round tourism (58.4 %), the ability to sustain continuous employment throughout the year (50.0 %).

The ability to increase a competitive edge over rival countries (36.8) and a decrease on the dependence on national and international conjecture (26.6 %) are stated as having minor positive affects. When asked the direction the development of the tourism industry would likely take in the future, 85.1 % of the travel agencies suggested that types of alternate tourism the most important development whilst only 53,3 % of travel agencies think that sea-sand- sun tourism will continue to be the main development in the future.

Travel agencies considered that training and educating staff in the tourism industry the most important factor in order to develop and sustain a viable tourism industry (98 %), and the development of types of alternate tourism (96 %), and the protection of natural and cultural environments were equally ranked by (96 %).

Other important matters for consideration were: Government support for the development of types of alternate tourism (92.6 %), the ability to adapt to the changing preferences of tourist’s demands (91.4 %), the preparation of long term plans and policies for the tourist industry, the creation of tourism throughout the year by increasing types of tourist products, the development of the economy by expanding touristical services to the whole area, and the ability to be more competitive by increasing the types of alternate tourism .

CONCLUSION

In recent years, the tourism industry continued to develop despite small growth in the world economy and a recession in some industries. As world globalization takes place, it is predicted that the tourism industry will continue to develop and renew itself. However, the tourism sector will develop at a gradual pace to maintain stable development. Especially important for developing countries is to create specific tourism policies for developing a long term plan for the tourist industry. Often decisions that are not relevant to the real and long term development of the tourist industry in the country are made in order to meet their short-term needs for creating foreign currency reserves and revenue, how it assists in providing solutions for unemployment and how to satisfy their desire for creating fast income.

In Turkey, during the 1980’s the government encouraged the formation of a tourism movement and foundation to advise on the future development of the tourism industry. However, this movement failed to produce a tourism policy defining a long term plan that could be immediately put into effec. The touristic movement in our country, similar to that in many developing countries, was created on the basis of developing mass tourism, or sea-sand-sun tourism, which ultimately came to be known as the type of traditional tourism for our country and remains so today.

The long term problems associated with this type of mass tourism are now apparent throughout the country and can be summarized as follows:

· it creates dense seasonal population in selected areas,

· the all inclusive package offered by many hotels effectively prohibits any interaction by local people at the social and cultural level

· the large seasonal population increase tends to destroys the natural environment ,

· the seasonal population increase prevents long time employment throughout the year,

· it appeals to that group of people at the lower income level.

In order to eliminate the disadvantages of this type of mass tourism it is essential to develop long term plans and policies relating to the development of types of alternate tourism, adhere to thes plans and policies, but remain flexible to change in response to tourist’s demands.

By acknowledging the disadvantages of this type of mass tourism, helped create the need to develop a market for types of alternate tourism. This strategy has the advantage of producing a stable tourism industry capable of appealing to social and cultural groups who can market and exploit local sources of activities for the benefit of the tourist industry. The main purpose of this study is to research the types and importance of developing types of alternate tourism throughout the Antalya region which is regarded as one of the most important tourist areas in Turkey. The results of the data collected from the travel agencies who completed the survey questions indicate the following:

1 In addition to the traditional sea-sand-sun type of tourism, types of alternate tourism such as cultural and history tourism, yacht tourism, and entertainment tourism have seen considerable growth. However, other types of alternate tourism, notably, golf tourism, congress tourism, have contributed to help make Antalya the preferred city of choice for tourists. Underwater and/or rafting activities are viewed as attractions catering to the sea-sand-sun tourists on a daily activity.

2. It is considered that the future development of types of alternate tourism, particularly gambling, golf, culture, historical, spa, entertainment, yachting, sports, fair, congress, and seminar will contribute greatly to tourist revenues in Antalya. At present, developing a type of gambling tourism is forbidden, but it is believed that gambling tourism will make the biggest contribution to an increase in tourism revenues.

3. The most important reason for creating types of alternate tourism types alongside 3s, sea - sand - sun tourism is that the latter is seasonal, does not produce tourist revenue throughout the year hence a decrease in income for local people, is concentrated in certain areas and has to compete with other regions to attract tourists.

4. The problems created by the traditional mass, 3S (sea-sand-sun) type of tourism can best be re solved by developing types of alternate tourism that are likely to produce the most positive results are classified as follows:

· The preservation and continued development of the natural and cultural environments are considered most important.

· The increased participation by the local population and therefore increased income and better standard of living.

· The increased opportunities to attract the interest of national and local investors to the tourism industry

· Increased tourism revenues.

· New employment opportunities providing year round employment

· Increased diversified market share and the ability to attract a greater number of potential tourists .

· Year round tourism throughout the whole region.

· Increased competitive advantage over rival countries and less dependence on international and national opinions relating to tourist attractions.

· Create Requests for Proposals for developing types of alternate tourism based on the following order of importance:

o Develop policies specifically aimed at developing a type of alternate tourism based on the culture, historical, and natural richness of the country which very few other countries in the world possess.

.

o Promote historical buildings under local ownership.

o Prepare an inventory of all cultural, historical, and natural resources throughout Antalya. Select those cultural and historical sites requiring mojor renovations to include amenities such as parking places, shopping centers, information offices, restrooms, etc. to satisfy tourists needs. Develop policies and procedures to allow local governments to be included in sharing revenues generated from the development of these historical and cultural sites with specific reference that such revenues must be used for the preservation and upkeep of these cultural and historical sites

o The importance of educating all members of the workforce , both local government and local tradespeople, with all the different aspects of operating a successful tourism industry.

o Policies developed and adopted to capable of producing long term growth and development of types of alternate tourism..

o The preservation of special natural, historical, and cultural specialties of the region responsible attracting tourists to this country rather than elsewhere..

At the national level, apart from existing policies focussing on how to increase tourism, a gradual change is taking place on how to best introduce types of alternate tourism, how they should be marketed and the development of a better customer service. At this time it is not possible to ascertain how effective these changes have been. It is essential to develop a comprehensive framework where all the various elements of the tourist industry can be assembled to produce realistic and long term goals. However, while developing cultural, archeological, and the places of natural beauty, it is crucial that the ecological balance of these areas remains the same by implementing strategies for sustainable development. . The Ministries of Tourism, Culture, and Environment should be responsible for undertaking the coordination of this new framework.

As a result, the possibilities for future research exist though not in the exact same context as this study, but suggest that future research may be conducted in our country based on the following;

· More in depth study of the traditional sea-sand-sun type of tourism begun in the 1980s and how it affects future tourism development. How the “Everything is included” type of policy used in the type of mass tourism should be analyzed in greater detail to identify the magnitude of the effects it has on future tourism development.

· The importance of the interaction and participation of the local population in tourism activities with particular reference to the cultural, socio-cultural, economic, and environmental development of that region to the country since it has been under -emphasized or not encouraged in the past.

· The ownership of all elements associated with the tourism industry by regional, national or foreignpersons or governments.

Finally any country with an educated population, knows how importance the natural, cultural, and historical background of the country has on the huge potential for developing a multi-facetted tourism industry. However, to be successful requires that we pay attention to the points raised in this paper, if agreed upon, implement them in a planned order to maximize a rapid increase in tourists to the country and thus generate additional tourist revenue for the Turkish economy.

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